Post-War Global Transformation: Decolonization and New World Orders

Decolonization: A Global Transformation

Decolonization was the historical process through which the Asian and African colonies of European Empires gained independence between 1945 and 1975. As a consequence, the Third World appeared, a bloc of former colonies not aligned with the US or the Soviet Union.

Causes of Decolonization

Metropolitan Causes

The causes originated both within the European empires and in the colonies.

• Increasing Awareness: European empires fought against the Axis powers for freedom and democracy and could no longer justify their colonial domination ideologically.
• Economic Factors: After the war, the metropolitan powers lacked sufficient military and economic resources to control their colonies; furthermore, it was no longer profitable.
• International Pressure: Pressure to grant independence to colonies came from various sources:
  • The League of Nations, followed by the UN, and the Catholic and Protestant churches.
  • Socialist and communist parties.
  • The Non-Aligned Movement.
  • The superpowers sought to attract these new countries to their respective blocs and provided them with military and economic support.

Colonial Causes

• The colonies became aware of political domination, economic exploitation, and cultural imposition.
• The Second World War, in which colonial soldiers fought for freedom and democracy, heightened nationalist sentiments.
• The appearance of nationalist movements demanded independence and sought to reclaim indigenous cultures and national identities.
• The main social groups that supported decolonization were: the colonial elite, who received education in the metropolis and led political parties, guerrilla groups, and liberation armies; and middle-class traders and colonial administrators who provided essential resources. These political movements resulted in nations with diverse political systems, including democracies, national dictatorships, and communist regimes.

Paths to Independence

The new states achieved independence in two primary ways:

• Peacefully: Some countries were granted independence gradually, sometimes accelerated by peaceful resistance movements.
• Violent Armed Conflicts: This was common in the case of the French, Dutch, and Portuguese colonies.

Decolonization in Asia

In Asia, decolonization was facilitated by the economic difficulties of the colonial powers (France and the United Kingdom) and their defeat by Japan.

The Independence of India

India had been under British direct control since 1857. An independence movement emerged in 1885 with the Congress Party, which represented the urban Hindu elites, whereas Muslims, representing 25% of the population, supported the Muslim League, founded in 1906. During the First World War, India's involvement strengthened Indian nationalism, and a new leader appeared: Mahatma Gandhi.

Mahatma Gandhi and India's Independence

Gandhi attended law school in the United Kingdom and lived in South Africa for approximately 20 years, where he fought against racial discrimination. In 1915, he returned to India and traveled around the country by train. In 1918, he led farmers' protests against the British, forcing concessions. This made Gandhi extremely popular. After the Amritsar Massacre, the Congress Party, led by Gandhi, began to advocate for India's independence. Gandhi developed a new strategy for fighting for social justice: non-violence, which rejected violence and favored passive resistance, civil disobedience, peaceful demonstrations, and hunger strikes. In 1930, Gandhi led the Salt March, a massive protest against the British government's monopoly on salt production by collecting salt from the sea.

During the Second World War, India's involvement further strengthened the independence movement:

• In 1943, the Muslim League proposed dividing the country between Hindus and Muslims.
• In 1946, the United Kingdom, facing financial strain, began negotiations with the Congress Party and the Muslim League to discuss the country's division.
• In 1947, Viceroy Mountbatten proclaimed the independence of India and its division into two countries: India for Hindus and Pakistan for Muslims, divided into two sectors (Western and Eastern). In 1971, Eastern Pakistan became Bangladesh.

The division provoked the forced displacement of millions of people and several wars over Kashmir.

Decolonization in Southeast Asia

Three European countries still held colonies in Southeast Asia: the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands.

• British Colonies: The United Kingdom granted India independence in 1947, followed by Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) and Myanmar (formerly Burma) in 1948 through negotiations. Malaysia, occupied by the Japanese during the war, saw the United Kingdom attempt to suppress its independence movement by force afterward. Malaysia gained independence in 1963, and Singapore became a separate state in 1965.
• French Indochina: Indochina, a French colony occupied by Japan in 1940, saw the emergence of the Viet Minh, a communist guerrilla led by Ho Chi Minh, in 1941. The Viet Minh declared Vietnam's independence. France reoccupied the country but was defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequently, Vietnam was divided into two parts: the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), led by Ho Chi Minh, and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), a capitalist regime supported by the United States.
• Dutch East Indies (Indonesia): Indonesia, a Dutch colony rich in natural resources (including rubber and oil), was occupied by the Japanese in 1942. In 1945, the nationalist leader Sukarno proclaimed independence. The Netherlands attempted to regain control with British support, but after four years of conflict, recognized Indonesia's independence in 1949.

Decolonization in the Middle East

The Middle East is an area of great economic importance due to its vast oil reserves and the strategic Suez Canal. After the First World War, the League of Nations assigned mandates to France and the United Kingdom, granting them control over regions to prepare them for independence:

• The British Mandate of Mesopotamia ended with Iraq's independence in 1932.
• The French Mandate of Syria ended with the creation of two states in 1946: Syria and Lebanon.
• The British Mandate of Palestine faced complex divisions. In 1946, Jordan became independent. The UN recommended the division of the western part into two states: one for the Arabs (the majority population), Palestine; and another for the Jews, Israel. The Jews proclaimed the State of Israel in 1948 and defeated the Arab armies (Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq) in the First Arab-Israeli War. Israel occupied most of the territory designated for Palestine, leading to the displacement of Palestinians. Egypt occupied Gaza, and Jordan occupied the West Bank and East Jerusalem.

Key Nations: Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt

• In Iran, the US-supported Pahlavi dynasty ruled from 1925 to 1979. In 1979, it was replaced by an Islamic dictatorship led by Ayatollah Khomeini.
• The Arabian Peninsula is largely ruled by theocratic monarchies with vast oil reserves.
• Egypt is an Arab country located in Africa. In 1922, it became a kingdom under British control. In 1952, a revolution established a republic, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser since 1954, who then joined the Non-Aligned Movement. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, despite opposition from the United Kingdom and France, becoming a national hero.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict

Causes of the Conflict

The main causes are:

• Zionism: The Zionist movement emerged in the late 19th century, advocating for a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In 1881, European Jews began to settle in Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire. In the 1920s, over 100,000 Jews emigrated to Palestine. The rise of Nazism and antisemitism in Europe provoked a new immigration wave, and by 1936, the Jewish population constituted about 36% of Palestine's inhabitants.
• British Colonialism: During World War I, the British occupied Palestine and Jordan and supported the creation of a Jewish “national home” in Palestine (Balfour Declaration). After the war, the League of Nations established the Mandate for Palestine, under which the British would administer the area with two goals: to establish a Jewish homeland and safeguard the rights of all Palestine's inhabitants. In 1939, the British government limited the arrival of new immigrants and the purchase of land; however, the British legitimized the Jewish presence in Palestine.
• Arab Nationalism: Palestinian Arabs viewed the arrival of Jewish immigrants with suspicion and carried out attacks. Simultaneously, they began to demand an independent state.

Creation of the State of Israel

After the Second World War, in 1947, the UN proposed the creation of two independent states in the region: one Arab (Palestine) and the other Jewish (Israel). The Jews accepted the plan, but the Arabs rejected it, opposing the creation of a Jewish state in their land and refusing fragmented territories in isolated regions (Gaza, the West Bank, and Galilee).

Decolonization in Africa

The start of the independence processes in Africa primarily occurred in the 1960s, largely through negotiation, though armed conflicts also took place.

North Africa: Independence Movements

• Libya: An Italian colony, Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Kingdom of Libya, following a UN recommendation.
• Algeria: Algeria's independence was a long and violent process. Conflicts arose between French colonists, known as the Pieds-Noirs, and native Algerians represented by the National Liberation Front (FLN). Political protests occurred between 1945 and 1954, followed by a war between the FLN and the French army from 1954 to 1962. Ultimately, France granted Algeria independence as a republic, which later became a dictatorship.
• Morocco: Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates in 1912. After the war, nationalist parties, supported by the urban middle class, began to demand independence. In the 1950s, they employed passive resistance, later escalating to armed struggle. Ultimately, the support of the local population and King Mohammed V led to Morocco's independence in 1956. Spain ceded Ifni to Morocco in 1969. Western Sahara began to demand independence with the Polisario Front, created in 1973, but Morocco and Mauritania also sought control of the region. Spain was preparing an independence referendum, but Morocco organized the Green March (a “peaceful” invasion of Western Sahara), leading to Spain's withdrawal in 1976. Since then, a conflict has persisted between Morocco and the Polisario Front.

Sub-Saharan Africa: Diverse Paths

• British Decolonization: Independence was primarily gained peacefully: Ghana (1957); Nigeria and Tanzania (1961); Uganda (1962); and Kenya (1963), after a rebellion. Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Malawi gained independence in 1964. Conversely, South Africa (1961) and Rhodesia (1964) gained independence under white minority governments that established racist regimes. Consequently, a war ensued in Rhodesia between the white government and nationalist groups, lasting until 1979. In 1980, Southern Rhodesia became Zimbabwe.
• French Decolonization: This was a very rapid process, a consequence of the defeat in Algeria and pressure from nationalist movements. In 1958, Guinea gained independence, followed by the remaining colonies in 1960, though economic ties with the metropolitan power were often maintained.
• Belgian Decolonization: This was also very rapid, due to pressure from the UN and nationalist movements: Congo (1960), Rwanda, and Burundi (1962).
• Portuguese Decolonization: This process was very complex because dictator Salazar refused to grant the colonies independence. Nationalist groups launched guerrilla campaigns in Angola and Mozambique. Consequently, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal (1974) led to the independence of Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, and Guinea-Bissau.
• Spanish Decolonization: Spain granted independence to Equatorial Guinea in 1968 after a referendum.

Africa After Independence: Challenges

The new African states faced major social, economic, and political challenges:

• Artificial Frontiers: Artificial frontiers often disregarded cultural or ethnic divisions, creating instability.
• Economic Problems: New economies often lacked structure, and developed countries continued to control the new states' raw materials. Consequently, poverty, inequality, and a lack of basic services persisted.
• Political Instability: Most democratic regimes failed due to the inexperience of political leaders, the absence of established political parties, and the influence of religion and the military in politics. This led to periods of political instability and the emergence of authoritarian regimes. Their main characteristics were:
  • Removal of term limits for mandates.
  • Censorship of media and repression of opponents.
  • Electoral fraud.
  • Corruption and nepotism.
  • Leaders who became wealthy by plundering their countries' natural resources.
  • Recurrent violations of human rights.

South Africa and Apartheid

The Union of South Africa was created in 1910. Its ethnic distribution was approximately 67% Black, 21% White (of British origin and Afrikaners, descendants of Dutch colonizers), 9% Coloured (mixed-race), and 3% Asian. In 1948, the Afrikaners won the elections and established Apartheid, a system of racial segregation for the Black population, enforced by a series of racist laws. Apartheid laws criminalized interracial marriages, prevented Black people from owning businesses or working in skilled positions, barred them from public office, and segregated public facilities and transport. Black people were also forbidden from buying property in cities and even from entering White neighborhoods.

In 1952, the African National Congress (ANC), a party representing the Black population and led by Nelson Mandela, began a campaign of non-violent civil disobedience. However, they were brutally repressed by the government (e.g., Sharpeville Massacre, 1960). In 1961, South Africa proclaimed independence from the UK to preserve the Apartheid system. In 1964, Nelson Mandela was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. South Africa initially had the support of the United States and the United Kingdom but suffered increasing international isolation. Around 1985, the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their support, and the UN imposed economic sanctions. This international isolation provoked an economic crisis, and in 1989, President F.W. de Klerk abolished Apartheid laws and freed Mandela. In 1994, free elections were held, and the ANC won with Nelson Mandela becoming president.

The Third World, Underdevelopment, and Neocolonialism

Understanding Underdevelopment

After the collapse of the communist bloc, 'Third World' countries began to be referred to as 'underdeveloped countries'. Underdevelopment is a condition affecting former colonies that gained independence in the 20th century. Its characteristics include:

• Social Problems: High population growth, poverty, inadequate education systems.
• Economic Problems: Lack of infrastructure, industrial production controlled by foreign companies, export of raw materials, and import of manufactured goods.
• Political Problems: Authoritarian regimes, corruption, etc.

The Concept of Neocolonialism

The newly independent states often lacked infrastructure, skilled personnel, and advanced technology. Consequently, former imperial powers invested in, granted loans to, and sold technologies to their former colonies, while multinational companies gained control over the exploitation of raw materials. Neocolonialism is a new form of colonialism where former imperial powers continue to exert control and influence over decolonized countries. As a result, these new countries became economically, politically, and militarily dependent. After the Cold War, the concept of Neo-imperialism emerged, describing the indirect control and political domination of weaker countries by developed nations, thereby limiting their independence.

Chronology

• 1885: Foundation of the Congress Party.
• 1906: Foundation of the Muslim League.
• 1947: Independence of India and Pakistan.
• 1948: Creation of Israel.
• 1946-1954: Indochina War.
• 1956: Suez Crisis.
• 1954-1962: Algerian War of Independence.
• 1967: Six-Day War.
• 1973: Yom Kippur War.
• 1994: Abolition of Apartheid.

Glossary

• Decolonization: The historical process through which Asian and African colonies of European Empires gained independence between 1945 and 1975.
• Third World: A group of former colonies that sought to maintain neutrality between the USA and the USSR.
• Zionism: A political movement that emerged in the 19th century, aiming to create a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine.
• PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization): A nationalist Palestinian organization that sought to establish a Palestinian state, often through armed struggle.
• Apartheid: A system of racial segregation of the Black population, enforced by a series of racist laws.
• Underdevelopment: A condition affecting former colonies that gained independence in the 20th century, characterized by high population growth, poverty, economic dependency, and authoritarian regimes.
• Neocolonialism: A new form of colonialism where former imperial powers continue to exert control and influence over decolonized countries.