Political Transformation: English and American Revolutions

The English Revolution (17th Century)

In England, power was traditionally divided between the monarch and the two chambers of Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords). These chambers often restrained the King's actions, particularly regarding taxation and policy.

In the 17th century, the Stuart monarchs sought to limit the power of Parliament and bring to justice those who opposed them. This conflict led to the Civil War between supporters of Parliament and the Monarchy.

In 1649, King Charles I was executed, resulting in a republic. The system of government, whose president was Oliver Cromwell, eventually took a dictatorial form.

The monarchy returned in 1660 under Charles II. This government, with the help of Parliament, voted in favor of the Habeas Corpus Act (1679), a signed document guaranteeing the freedom of citizens and preventing arbitrary arrests.

The Glorious Revolution of 1689 ended the Stuart monarchy and proclaimed William of Orange as King. He swore allegiance to the Bill of Rights, which limited the power of the monarch and ensured that Parliament approved the King's decisions.

The Ancien Régime (AR)

The Ancien Régime describes societies of the Early Modern period that had passed the medieval and feudal stages but retained a manor-style agrarian economy and a rigid, stratified society.

Lordly Agriculture

This was subsistence farming, characterized by the fallow system. All produce went toward the farmers' own consumption, often leading to subsistence crises. The lands belonged to the nobles and clergy, and they were worked by peasants who paid various taxes.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement of the 18th century that placed absolute faith in reason. It was built upon the ideas of two previous philosophers:

• Isaac Newton: Initiated the scientific method.
• John Locke: Developed the concept of the division of powers (legislative and executive).

The philosophers of the Enlightenment (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau) defended and spread the idea of an equal and free society.

Economic and Political Thought

Mercantilism (an economy based on the amount of precious metals) was opposed by Physiocracy (an agriculture-based economy advocating free trade and private property). The Enlightenment was fundamentally opposed to absolutism and led to the rise of liberalism.

• Montesquieu: Believed in the division of powers.
• Rousseau: Proposed the Social Contract between citizens.
• Voltaire: Defended the necessity of Parliament and the need for a fair tax system.

Enlightened Despotism

In this system, the monarch wielded absolute power but attempted to maintain or increase authority by carrying out projects, reforms, and modernization. Monarchs, such as Carlos III, sought reform in several areas:

• Streamlining the administration.
• Improving education.
• Developing manufacturing.
• Partially liberalizing production and trade.

However, these attempts failed because the monarchs could not fundamentally reform the economy and maintain a stratified society while simultaneously holding onto absolute power.

The American Revolution

The thirteen colonies belonging to the British Empire sought independence from England, demanding the right to freedom and equality. The movement was preceded by the influence of Parliamentarianism and the Enlightenment.

The colonists protested commercial rates and refused to comply with any law that had not been approved by the colonies themselves. In 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed, a document asserting the right of men to decide who governs and the duty of governments to act on behalf of the people.

The U.S. Constitution was signed in 1787 after the defeat at Yorktown. George Washington became the first U.S. president. That document established:

• The separation of powers.
• A republican form of government.
• A federal structure and federal government.
• A declaration of rights.