Political Transformation: England's Limited Monarchy and the Age of Enlightenment

The Parliamentary Monarchy in England

The King's power in England had been limited by the Parliament since the Middle Ages. The English Parliament was bicameral, made up of two houses:

• The House of Lords: Composed of the clergy and nobles.
• The House of Commons: Representing the cities and the bourgeoisie.

The 17th Century English Revolutions

The first Stuart kings attempted to impose an absolute monarchy in England. This ambition led to significant conflict.

The English Civil War and the Republic

Charles I imprisoned and executed his Parliament opponents, which led directly to a civil war. Charles I and his supporters were defeated, and the king was executed in 1649. A Republic, led by Oliver Cromwell, was subsequently proclaimed.

Restoration and the Bill of Rights

In 1660, the monarchy under Charles II was restored, but only after the king accepted the control of the Parliament. A crucial step toward individual liberty was taken in 1679 with the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act, a law guaranteeing prisoners' rights and individual freedoms.

Charles II was succeeded by his Catholic brother, James II, who attempted to implement absolutism once again. The Parliament revolted in 1689, and the king fled to France. This event is known as the Glorious Revolution.

The Parliament passed the crown to William of Orange, who was married to Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II. Both ruled England after accepting the Bill of Rights.

Key Provisions of the Bill of Rights (1689)

The Bill of Rights was a foundational law that recognized individual freedoms, established the separation of powers, and cemented the control of the monarchy by the Parliament. The structure of governance was defined as follows:

• Legislative Power: Held by the Parliament (to make laws).
• Judicial Power: Held by the independent courts and tribunals.
• Executive Power: Held by the Monarchy and the government.

Elections were held to select Parliamentarians, although suffrage was restricted only to the wealthiest men.

Enlightened Despotism

European absolute monarchs, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, sought to renovate their monarchies by implementing reforms to improve their countries and the lives of their citizens, but without relinquishing their absolute power. Their motto was: "All for the people, nothing by the people."

Reforms of Enlightened Despots

Enlightened despots focused on several key areas:

• Promoting public education.
• Renovating the administration to make it more efficient.
• Developing agriculture.
• Favoring free trade.
• Creating manufacturing and trading companies.

Prototypes of enlightened despots included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Charles III of Spain.

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The new intellectual movement that emerged in the 18th century is known as the Enlightenment. These new ideas challenged the Ancien Régime (Old Regime) and were strongly supported by the bourgeoisie. All the major revolutions in the 18th century were based on these Enlightened principles.

The Encyclopedia (1751–1772)

The Encyclopedia was a massive compilation of human knowledge published between 1751 and 1772. It consisted of 20 volumes edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.

Important philosophers and scientists collaborated on this project, which was distributed widely in France and all over European countries. The Encyclopedia included articles that subtly criticized the absolute monarchy and the stratified society. To circumvent royal censorship, the contributors often had to express their critical ideas indirectly.