Political Systems, Alliances, and Imperialism: 1870–1914

1.1. Political Systems (1870–1914)

Two different political systems coexisted between 1870 and 1914:

Parliamentary Systems in Western Europe

Parliamentary systems prevailed in Western Europe. Thus, many countries adopted universal male suffrage, while suffragette movements began to arise, claiming the vote for women. Outside Europe, the United States adopted universal male suffrage and Japan introduced a parliamentary system.

Autocratic Systems in Central and Eastern Europe

Autocratic systems persisted in Central and Eastern Europe:

• Austro-Hungarian Empire: Consisted of multiple nationalities. Beginning in 1867, it became a dual monarchy formed by two crowns, each with its own organization (Austria and Hungary), while retaining a common foreign policy and the figure of the emperor.
• Russian Empire: Approved the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, but was ruled under an autocratic system in which the parliament had no power.
• Ottoman Empire: Maintained autocratic rule over people of multiple nationalities.

1.3. European Alliance Systems

European international relations during this period went through distinct stages:

Bismarckian Alliance Systems (1871–1890)

These were a set of alliances promoted by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Their objective was to isolate France and prevent its alliance with Russia against Germany.

Peace Through Strength (1891–1914)

Once Bismarck lost his position, the era of peace through strength began.

5.1. Imperialism and Its Causes

From 1870, European colonial expansion turned to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, entering a new phase called imperialism. Imperialism implied the military, economic, and political control of the European minority over the dominated territories.

Causes of Imperialism

• Political and Strategic: The possession of colonies assured the power and international prestige of countries or allowed trade routes to be controlled.
• Demographic: Colonies provided territories where excess population could be sent to reduce unemployment and relieve internal social tensions.
• Economic: Increased production brought by the Second Industrialization required access to raw materials.
• Ideological: Proclaimed the superiority of the white race along with its "mission" to civilize the rest of the world.