Political and Industrial Transformations in Europe

Liberal revolutions.

They were political revolutions led by the bourgeoisie at the end of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. They didn't give rise to monarchies, but to liberal regimes where not everybody could vote.

Cultural nation.

A large group of people with cultural elements in common such as language, territory, economic life, ethnicity...

Political nation.

A large group of people who hold sovereignty, that is the power to govern themselves without any interference.

Thermidorian convention.

The period of the French Revolution between 1794 and 1795, between the execution of Robespierre by the moderate bourgeoisie and the approval of the Constitution of 1795. It's called like that because the revolt to finish with Robespierre happened in the month called Thermidor in the republican calendar. In this period, the white terror, which was the persecution of the Jacobins, occurred.

Napoleon Bonaparte.

A military leader from France born in Corsica. He became a general at the age of 26. He was one of the members of the Directory. He led the coup which ended the French Revolution in 1799. After that, he was appointed as First Consul and later Consul for life. In 1804, he proclaimed himself Emperor of France and invaded Europe during the Napoleonic Wars; he was defeated in 1814. He died in 1821.

Consulate.

A period in the history of France after the revolution, between 1799 and 1804. Despite there being a parliament, it was a military dictatorship. It was formed by 3 people.

Congress of Vienna.

It was a meeting celebrated in Vienna between the end of 1814 and the beginning of 1815. This was done to restore absolutism in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. During that time, Napoleon escaped from Elba and was defeated again. The purpose of this meeting was to restore monarchs in their countries and redraw the map of Europe without considering the just emerged nations. This map was done to avoid a future French invasion, so some artificial states were created.

1st Industrial rev.

Was a series of deep changes as a consequence of the incorporation of machines in workshops. In 1760 in England and Scotland. Finished by 1830. Some factors like inventions, raw materials, energy sources, capital availability, and colonial markets made this possible.

2nd Industrial rev.

Was a new wave of industrialization that started in the 1850s when the Bessemer converter was invented or in 1870 when new industrial organization methods were implemented. It finished in 1914 with the beginning of WW1.

Taylorism.

A new way to organize labor proposed by an engineer called Frederick Taylor. It was based on the application of science to obtain mass production. It began in the 1880s-1890s.

Fordism.

A new way to organize labor proposed by Henry Ford. It was based on mass production and chain production. It started in the 1910s.

Chartism.

Another labor movement in Great Britain between 1838 and 1848. It was based on the People's Charter, a document that demanded universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and yearly elections. Their final purpose was participating in politics and improving the laws regulating work conditions. Some of their vindications were eventually obtained, but this movement dissolved because the most radical workers controlled it and they lost popular support.

Second International.

A second attempt to create an international organization of trade unions and political parties that supported left ideas. The purpose was only coordinating their actions, but not setting an only doctrine. For example, they set Labor Day on the 1st of May.