Philosophy of Science: Concepts, Theories, and Methods

Conception of Science

Philosophers of science propose various concepts and theories, often distinguishing between observational (or empirical) and theoretical concepts. Theoretical concepts cannot be observed directly or through a tool and are explained by definition. Three main positions are distinguished:

• The empiricist view: theoretical concepts are definable in terms of observational ones.
• The contemporary view: denies pure observational science, asserting that all observation is theory-laden.
• Rudolf Carnap's concept: the differentiation between theoretical and observational is not radical but gradual.

Structural Conception of Scientific Theories

The structural conception of scientific theories emerged to address the shortcomings of classical concepts, aided by historical studies of scientific revolutions. Thomas Kuhn introduced the following key ideas:

• Paradigm: Designates a scientific community at a historic moment, sharing a way of understanding their discipline and its comparative study. It serves as a true criterion of demarcation between science and pseudoscience.
• Periods: Science progresses through normal and revolutionary periods. A revolutionary period involves a paradigm shift, where scientists behave radically differently.
• Irrelevance of crucial experiments: For each proposed theory, there are always alternative theories that help verify it, making crucial experiments less definitive.
• Immunity from experimental falsification: A theory often exhibits immunity from experimental falsification. We cannot easily prove a theory invalid from within its own framework, because:
  • It does not take into account what does not fit the theory.
  • If contradictory evidence is found, it is either hidden or adapted to fit the theory.
  • Only what falls under the scope of the theory is selected; the theory, in essence, creates its own experience.
• Progress through revolutions: Science progresses through revolutions that involve the transformation of thought styles, not merely the accumulation of truths.
• Incommensurability of paradigms: Different paradigms are inconsistent or incommensurable with each other, meaning they cannot be translated without loss of elements.
• Theories as complex structures: Theories are complex and deep structures of a logical and/or mathematical nature that relate statements with knowledge and experience within a single valid scientific paradigm.

Methods of Science

The term method means 'road,' and scientific method refers to 'the path from experience to the formulation of a law or theory.'

Induction

Induction is an inference process where one moves from particular cases to a general conclusion. This is a generalization. Therefore, induction is often considered an unreliable, weak, and risky process, because a single counter-example can debunk the generalization. Induction is based on metaphysical assumptions, which are not empirically provable.

While widespread, induction is often considered insufficient for the formulation of robust scientific knowledge; it can hardly form the sole basis for a law or theory.