Philosophy of Science and Classical Rhetoric Principles

Philosophy of Science

1. Classification of Science

• Formal Science: Not concerned with facts but with the relationships between series of symbols that have been previously established with specific rules (e.g., Mathematics, Logic).
• Experimental Science: Focuses on observable occurrences and the relationships we can discover between them (e.g., Physics, Biology).

2. The Scientific Method

Classical Scientific Method (Inductive-Deductive)

Inductive Phase:

1. It involves a large number of observations.
2. Observations must be made in a wide range of different circumstances.
3. No statement based on observation contradicts the universal law derived.

Deductive Phase:

This phase involves the explanation of a phenomenon. Historically, this approach sometimes lacked the necessary solidity, potentially contradicting established laws or remaining vague.

Modern Scientific Method (Hypothetico-Deductive)

1. Posing a Problem: Identifying a phenomenon that seems impossible to explain using current knowledge.
2. Gathering Empirical Data: The researcher gathers as much relevant information as possible on the unexplained subject.
3. Formulating an Explanatory Hypothesis: Using the gathered information to propose a possible solution or explanation.
4. Deducing Observable Consequences: Predicting the consequences that would logically follow if the proposed hypothesis were true.
5. Experimental Testing: Predicted consequences are checked against facts through experimentation to validate or falsify the proposed hypothesis.

3. The Criteria of Demarcation

The criterion of demarcation became necessary to establish standards to distinguish between what constitutes a scientific discipline and what does not.

• Verificationism: Only theories that are verified through experiments can be considered scientific, aiming to prove that the theory is true in all cases under consideration.
• Falsificationism (Popper): Argues that we cannot conclusively verify or prove scientific laws. Instead, science progresses by attempting to prove that these laws are conclusively false.

Logic, Rhetoric, and Argumentation

4. Rhetoric and the Structure of Discourse

Rhetoric is a technique for developing effective and persuasive discourses, both written and spoken.

The Five Canons of Rhetoric

Inventio (Invention):

Involves gathering the ideas and arguments that will be used in the discourse.

Dispositio (Arrangement):

The system used to organize the elements that make up the discourse.

Elocutio (Style):

Polishing and perfecting the language and style of the discourse.

Memoria (Memory):

The orator retains the discourse in his mind for delivery.

Actio (Delivery):

This canon pays special attention to intonation, the inflection of voice, and gestures.

Structure of a Classical Discourse

1. Introduction (Exordium): Sets the subject to be dealt with or the thesis to be defended.
2. Development:
   • First Part (Narratio): Expressing the facts that form the basis of the conclusion that will be given later.
   • Second Part (Argumentatio): Providing the proof that backs up the position being defended. This section is often polemical, aiming to refute the opposing thesis.
3. Conclusion (Peroratio): Designed to convince the listener or reader to accept the orator's or writer's thesis.