Philosophy's Quest for Certainty: From 17th Century to Postmodernity

The 17th Century Knowledge Crisis and Its Responses

The profound crisis of knowledge that emerged in the seventeenth century prompted various philosophical and scientific responses. One significant path was the development of new scientific methodologies aimed at constructing true knowledge, a direction influenced by the rationalism of Descartes. British Empiricism offered another distinct attempt to resolve this crisis.

Rationalism and Empiricism: Divergent Paths

Turning to science, Galileo Galilei significantly emphasized the scientific method. To some extent, the hypothetical-deductive method, evolving from both deductive and inductive approaches, was a creation attributed to Galileo. Following the deductive method, one could align with deductive rationalism, which seeks to deduce all possible knowledge from a foundational first principle, such as Descartes' assertion of the self's existence as thought. Conversely, empiricists identified with the inductive method, as they believed knowledge emerges from sensory experiences.

Core Philosophical Differences: Innate Ideas vs. Tabula Rasa

If there is one school of thought that fundamentally opposes rationalism, it is empiricism. They differ primarily in two key aspects:

• Innate Ideas vs. Blank Slate: Rationalists affirm the existence of innate ideas—concepts we possess at birth, including Descartes' identification of the idea of infinity with God. In stark contrast, empiricists assert that we are born with a tabula rasa (a blank slate); our mind is like an empty room that we fill through our experiences.

David Hume's Empiricist Perspective

According to David Hume, our knowledge (excluding mathematics) originates from sense impressions, which are the ideas that subsequently evoke in our minds. This stance represents an enormous divergence from rationalism, which posits the possibility of certain knowledge without experience and, ultimately, assigns a central role to God.

Echoes of the Baroque: Knowledge in Postmodernity

The Baroque era, characterized by economic and cultural crises, bears striking similarities to our current age of postmodernity. Postmodernity is marked by relativism in knowledge and belief. There is a significant cultural mix, fostering both cohabitation and tolerance, but also conflict. The development of religious fundamentalism is a symptom of this complexity. Furthermore, the advancements in science and technology, which since the Enlightenment were considered not only reliable but also accompanied by ethical principles, are now often viewed with skepticism regarding their absolute certainty.

The Search for Secure Knowledge Today

The contemporary pursuit of secure knowledge does not typically follow Descartes' path. The possibility of deductive knowledge derived from first principles in philosophy would conflict with the immense richness and complexity of reality. Instead, modern solutions lean towards achieving true consensus through dialogical means (as proposed by Jürgen Habermas) and also through a radical critique of Western culture (as exemplified by Friedrich Nietzsche).

Descartes' Enduring Legacy and Modern Relevance

Other significant aspects of Descartes' philosophy continue to resonate today:

• Mind-Body Relationship: This relationship, extensively studied in psychology, particularly in the context of psychosomatic connections.
• Human-Machine Relationship: Illustrated in numerous science fiction films, such as The Matrix, whose creators were inspired by Descartes' philosophy, especially the evil genius hypothesis.
• Animal Rights: An issue for which Descartes' philosophy has been criticized, particularly concerning his views on animal consciousness.