Philosophical Views on Human Nature: Marx, Nietzsche, Kant, Feuerbach

Marx on Human Essence: Social Relations

For Marx, humanity is primarily defined by its social relations. He stated, "...the human essence is no abstraction inherent in each individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of social relations." These relationships are not purely spiritual, existing only between consciousnesses, but represent the unity of spiritual and material interactions established as humans engage in the production and reproduction of both material and spiritual life.

• Humanity as a natural-active being.
• Humanity as essentially a social being.
• Humanity as a historical being.
• Humanity as a subject of study.

Nietzsche: Humanity Between Beast and Superman

For Nietzsche, humanity is a transitional stage between ape and what he termed the 'Übermensch' or 'Superman,' a concept clearly articulated in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Nietzsche describes the 'Superman' as a 'Free Spirit' (understanding 'spirit' materialistically, related to the brain). This individual dares to do anything, exhibiting ruthlessness (what he calls the "will to power") to achieve their desires or needs, akin to a 'wild,' superintelligent being.

• Humanity as miserable: Despising the earth, body, and instinct, humanity is incomplete, positioned between beast and Superman. It is an intermediate step between animality and the Superman.
• Humanity as a flawed animal: It is the only animal in the universe that has not yet consolidated its nature; it is still in the making. Humanity is at risk: either it overcomes itself, or it reverts to primitive animality.
• Humanity as intermediate: It is an unfinished becoming, a bridge to the Superman. Humanity must overcome itself to become the Superman. Humanity is not static or motionless but is endowed with enormous creative capacity.
• Life's expansive strength: The human species possesses life's expansive force and is in a constant, unfinished evolutionary process (influenced by Darwinian thought), moving towards higher forms.

Kant's Dual Conception of Humanity

According to Kant, as a phenomenon, humans are subject to the same mathematical, physical, and biological laws of nature. Their behavior can be explained like that of other objects in the physical world. However, as a noumenon, humans are free and belong to the intelligible realm of morality. This realm is governed by ideas of morality and freedom, knowable through practical reason.

Kant identifies three key human dispositions:

1. A disposition towards animality, which explains the technical capacity of humans.
2. A disposition towards humanity, which explains their pragmatic capacity.
3. A disposition towards personality, which explains their moral capacity.

Accordingly, for Kant, human beings are characterized by an "unsocial sociability" or a "sociable unsociability."

Feuerbach: Humanity as the Creator of God

For Feuerbach, humanity's understanding evolved: humans first created God and later realized that theology was essentially anthropology—a study of humanity itself.

Feuerbach considered God a human creation and denied His existence, along with any other god, therefore rejecting theism. He also denied idealism, which aimed to supplant the real, embodied human with 'spirit' and 'reason'.

Therefore, for Feuerbach, it is not God who created humanity in His image, but rather humanity who created God, projecting onto Him its own idealized image. Humans attribute their own qualities to God, reflecting their fulfilled wishes.