Philosophical Perspectives on Truth: Criteria and Theories

Criteria for Determining Truth

A criterion of truth is a procedure by which we distinguish truth from falsehood. The following criteria are commonly mentioned:

• Authority: A statement is accepted as true because it comes from someone who is granted credit for their knowledge in a subject.
• Tradition: That which has been accepted as true over time and enjoys popular support is taken as true.
• Correspondence between Thought and Reality: What we think will be true if it matches empirical reality. This criterion establishes the adequacy or consistency between what is said and what it is.
• Logical Consistency: This involves checking that there is no contradiction between statements belonging to the same system, and that these statements are necessarily derived from the axioms or principles.
• Utility: A statement will be true when it is profitable and useful, allowing us to engage with reality and advance our research.
• Evidence: This is considered a fundamental criterion. In the realm of reason, first principles like identity and non-contradiction are considered evident (rational evidence). In the realm of sensitivity, sense data provides sensory evidence. Descartes argued that evidence of knowledge must be accompanied by two characteristics: clarity and distinction.

Philosophical Theories of Truth

1. Truth as Correspondence or Appropriateness

   Aristotle formulated it as: "To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false; while to say of what is that it is, or of what is not that it is not, is true." Elements involved in the act of knowing include: what it is (the object) and to say (the subject and its representation of the object). Truth is understood as establishing a special relationship of correspondence between the subject and the known object. This concept of truth emphasizes the adequacy or consistency between what is said about something and what that something is. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) posited a concordance between the object and the concept. Ludwig Wittgenstein (20th century) drew a parallel between fact and proposition, viewing the latter as a picture of reality.

2. Truth as Coherence

   Formulated by Hegel, it states that "the true is the whole" (Phenomenology of Spirit). Hegel defended that truth is reached historically: everything that expresses the truth of knowledge is historical, and only at the end of history is it displayed in its full magnitude and direction.

3. Pragmatic Theory of Truth

   Pragmatism, championed by William James, accepts the theory of fitness or suitability. James understood fitness in the same sense that one might say, "this machine is suitable for motocross" – meaning it serves a purpose and is useful for that purpose. Thus, suitability and adaptation are key: a statement is true if it is suitable for solving problems or meeting needs.

4. Consensus Theory of Truth

   Defended by thinkers like Peirce, Apel, and Habermas, this theory stresses the necessity of dialogue as a cooperative framework for discovering the truth of propositions.