Philosophical Perspectives on Human Nature

Rational and Political Animal (Aristotle)

Aristotle's concepts of humanity as a rational and political animal are foundational, reappearing constantly throughout philosophy. This understanding arises within a philosophical context characterized by:

• A fixist, essentialist, and hierarchical worldview. In this view, the human being is considered different from and superior to other beings due to possessing rationality.
• A contemplative and theoretical conception of both humanity and nature.
• This philosophical context also served to justify the existing social order, including practices like slave society and the subordination of women.

Judeo-Christian View of Humanity

The Judeo-Christian conception offers a distinct perspective on human nature, with key tenets including:

• Humanity has been created by God, often understood as being in His image.
• Human nature, particularly after the concept of a 'fall,' is considered prone to evil.
• Humans require God's divine assistance or grace to act righteously.
• A linear conception of time and history, which has a definitive beginning and an anticipated end.
• Earthly life is viewed as a transition to the true, eternal afterlife.
• This supports a hierarchical, static, and contemplative view of society.

This conception serves to justify theocentrism, where God is the central focus of life, meaning, and society.

Homo Faber: The Tool-Making Human

This perspective defines humans as "the tool-making animal" (Homo faber). It emerged prominently during the Industrial Revolution, where work transformed from being viewed primarily as a curse or punishment to a blessing, a source of benefit, and a means of progress.

The 'Sick Animal': Will and Instinct

Challenging reason-centric views, this concept posits that the essence of humanity lies not in rationality, but in will, desire, and instinct.

Nietzsche's Perspective on Will

Friedrich Nietzsche emphasized the will to power as the fundamental human drive, leading individuals to question and reject externally imposed values and morals, fostering a revaluation of all values.

Freud's View on Unconscious Impulses

Sigmund Freud attributed much of human behavior to powerful sexual and aggressive impulses originating in the unconscious mind, suggesting that rationality often serves to mask these deeper drives.

Humanity Condemned to Be Free (Existentialism)

Existentialism, particularly voiced by thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre, posits that "the human being is condemned to be free" – meaning we are radically free and responsible for our choices, unable to escape this freedom. This philosophy often reflects a sense of crisis, portraying individuals as feeling lost and distressed in a seemingly meaningless universe. Key branches include:

• German Existentialism: Often emphasizes themes of anguish, death, despair, and the encounter with nothingness (e.g., Martin Heidegger).
• French Existentialism: Tends to give greater prominence to the idea of freedom, choice, and responsibility (e.g., Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus).

Spinoza on Determinism and Human Freedom

Baruch Spinoza argued that human beings do not possess free will in the conventional sense. He believed that the idea of humans as truly free agents is an illusion, a "dream," as all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes within a natural, divine order (Deus sive Natura).

Hobbes: Human Nature and Lack of Freedom

Thomas Hobbes contended that humans are not inherently free in a state of nature, which he described as a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). He believed human beings are naturally self-interested and driven by fundamental desires and aversions, primarily:

• The drive to operate for personal gain or profit.
• The drive to achieve security and self-preservation.
• The drive to enhance one's reputation.

Freedom, for Hobbes, largely arises within a structured society under a sovereign power, which mitigates natural human impulses.

Humans as Relational Beings (Personalism)

Personalism emphasizes that human beings are fundamentally defined by their capacity for communication and relationships. This philosophical stance highlights several key features of the person:

• Embodied Existence: Humans are beings of flesh and blood, yet their consciousness allows them to be open to the world from their inner selves and experiences.
• Communication: The person is inherently capable of self-transcendence, reaching out and connecting with others.
• Limited Freedom: While persons are free, this freedom is not absolute; it is conditioned and operates within limitations.
• Commitment: The choices and commitments made by an individual play a crucial role in defining who they are.
• Critical Capabilities: A person possesses the ability to critically assess situations and to assert dissent (e.g., "to say no").
• Inherent Dignity: Each person has a lofty, intrinsic dignity, meaning their worth is not dependent on material possessions or external valuations; it is priceless.
• Capacity for Closeness and Friendship: The ability to form deep connections, such as closeness and friendship, is a vital aspect of being human.

Reason vs. Passion: Apollonian & Dionysian

The dichotomy between reason and passion is a recurring theme in understanding human nature:

• Reason is often symbolized as Apollonian (after Apollo, the Greek god of reason, order, and light).
• Passion is often symbolized as Dionysian (after Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, ecstasy, and pleasure).

It is argued that what we love and are passionate about significantly identifies us. Many philosophical traditions suggest the importance of finding a balance and harmony between reason and passion for a flourishing human life.

Desires and Passions as Driving Forces

Various philosophers have explored the role of desires and passions as motivators of human action:

Stoic Philosophy on Passion

The Stoics generally viewed strong passions (pathē) as disturbances of the soul that disrupt our mood and judgment. They recommended achieving ataraxia (tranquility) and apatheia (freedom from disturbing passions). Epictetus, for instance, advised remaining unmoved by external events and mastering one's emotional responses.

Hegel on Passion's Role in Achievement

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel famously stated, "Nothing great in the world has been accomplished without passion." He saw passion as a vital force in driving historical progress and individual achievement.

Rousseau on Emotion as Human Essence

Jean-Jacques Rousseau considered emotion and sentiment to be fundamental to human nature, sometimes even more so than reason. He believed that our deepest feelings connect us to our authentic selves.

Voltaire on Passion as a Motivator

Voltaire likened passions to the wind that propels a ship: "Passion is the wind that fills the sails of the vessel; it sometimes sinks it, but without it, it cannot sail." He acknowledged their power for both good and ill.

Benjamin Prado on the Importance of Love

The contemporary writer Benjamin Prado encapsulates a modern sentiment on the centrality of emotional connection with lines like, "Not to love is to be nothing," highlighting love as essential to a meaningful existence.