Philosophical Movements: Logical Positivism and Critical Theory

Logical Positivism and the Vienna Circle

Logical Positivism, often associated with the Vienna Circle, was a significant philosophical movement. Key figures included Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap.

Origins and Objectives

The movement originated with Schlick, who began organizing regular workshops involving experts in philosophy, physics, and mathematics. The primary objective was to establish the limits of knowledge on an empirical basis, achieved through the construction of a unified language of science. This involved using scientific knowledge and the precision of formal languages, like mathematics, as a reference.

Core Characteristics

Logical Positivism is characterized by:

• Radical Empiricism: Knowledge is derived solely from sensory experience.
• Rejection of Metaphysics: Metaphysical statements were considered meaningless.
• Emphasis on Language: Language was seen as the sole object of philosophical activity.

The central task was to determine the meaning of language. Since language is expository and expressed through propositions, it was crucial to understand the conditions necessary for a proposition to be true. This led to the development of the Verification Principle.

The Verification Principle

According to this criterion, only propositions that could be verified were considered meaningful. We understand the meaning of a proposition only when we know how to verify what it asserts. Consequently, metaphysical and religious discourses fell outside the realm of science.

However, this ruling principle faced significant challenges, as many propositions from various potential sciences were not universally accepted through verification. This ultimately led to the abandonment of the criterion, with alternative approaches emerging, notably from Karl Popper.

Critical Theory and the Frankfurt School

Critical Theory emerged from the Frankfurt School, a group of young Marxist thinkers including Erich Fromm and Theodor W. Adorno.

Goals and Critique of Society

Their goal was to create a multidisciplinary theory of society, incorporating insights from economics, sociology, and psychology. Adorno and Max Horkheimer famously published Dialectic of Enlightenment. According to their analysis, societal progress, driven by scientific development, had instrumentalized reason. Reason was used merely to subdue nature for human interests, neglecting moral and social considerations. This process, they argued, dehumanized individuals rather than serving humanity.

In response to this scientific rationality, Critical Theory proposed a critique of all forms of domination over humanity and irrationality.

Habermas and Communicative Action

Later, Jürgen Habermas found the key to defining central concepts of truth and justice in language and its functions. According to Habermas, all human activities aim to solve problems related to our interests. He identified three types of fundamental human interests:

1. Technical Interests: Aim to understand and dominate nature, seeking material outcomes. This aligns with instrumental rationality.
2. Practical (Cultural) Interests: Concerned with the organization of society and human relations.
3. Emancipatory Interests: Aim to liberate humanity from dependence on nature, particularly in terms of satisfying fundamental vital needs. These interests govern critical rationality.