Philosophical Foundations of the State: Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel

Rousseau's Social Contract Theory

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was deeply interested in transforming the prevailing social order in Europe, which was characterized by the struggle between the monarchy and the bourgeoisie. To develop his theory, he created a fictional state of nature where he posited the existence of a natural man, often referred to as the noble savage.

The natural man lives in harmony between his inner nature (his needs) and external nature (the environment), as his surroundings provide him with everything he requires. The noble savage is not inherently a social being; he lacks extensive knowledge, does not imagine the future, but lives solely in the present, and has no inherent idea of good or evil.

Rousseau believed that two primary processes eventually led humans to transition from this state: increasing population and climate change. Humans then discovered that they could only adapt to the adversities of the environment if they constituted a society. This transition, however, led to the emergence of social inequalities.

Continuing conflicts caused by these social inequalities convinced humans that there had to be security and safety among them. Thus, civil society was constituted, and a State was formed based on mutual need. This political body was tasked with controlling social conflict, though not necessarily solving it.

To attain freedom, Rousseau proposed a form of social contract in which each individual transfers all of their natural rights to the community. However, society is not subjected to an arbitrary monarch, but rather to a political power that expresses the general will: the republic, whose objective is the well-being of all citizens.

Kant's Social Contract Philosophy

Immanuel Kant believed that people should enter the State not merely out of prudence, but because it is their moral duty. The State is necessary because it serves as an indispensable authority for ordering the arbitrary actions of individuals. Kant defined the State as the union of a multitude of men under legal laws. In Kantian philosophy, the State reserves the exclusive power to make laws.

Hegel's Critique of Contractarianism

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel criticized contractarian theory, although he acknowledged the merits of a state form. In the context of the French Revolution (1789), the French sought to establish a modern state. Hegel then posed the question: What are the forces that allow a people to revive?

The German philosopher's response was Reason. Hegelian Reason has a substantially different meaning than the concept of a contract. Hegel believed that Reason is a force, a principle that determines everything in the universe; in this sense, it is akin to the Christian notion of God, but Reason is not immutable like God. Instead, Reason evolves and develops over time.

Hegel believed that the highest expression of Reason on Earth is the Prussian state, which he considered the ideal state: a society wholly guided by Reason and, therefore, by justice.