Philosophical Foundations: Kant's Enlightenment and Plato's Polis

Immanuel Kant: Historical and Philosophical Context

Immanuel Kant lived in the eighteenth century, coinciding with the independence of the United States, the French Revolution, and the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. These changes, in addition to the consolidation of capitalism and the rise of the bourgeoisie, shaped the era.

The Enlightenment and Its Core Ideals

The Enlightenment imposed its core principle: Sapere aude (Dare to think for yourself) – Emancipation using reason.

This movement is characterized by a belief in autonomous reason to clarify all past obscurantism. Key characteristics include:

• Maturity, autonomy, dignity, and critical thinking.
• Progress and cosmopolitanism.
• The pursuit of perpetual peace.

The Encyclopedia is the best expression of these ideals. Proponents believed that educational, scientific, and legal advances would create a more just and equal humanity.

Secularization and the Dignity of the Human Being

The secularization of thought freed it from subjection to religious dogma, ensuring that religious principles remained "within the bounds of reason." This era championed the struggle for the dignity of the human being, treating humanity as an end in itself.

Political and Scientific Landscape

In politics, the era was dominated by enlightened despotism (e.g., Charles III, Frederick II). In science, Isaac Newton, inspired by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, developed a conception of science based on a combination of experimentation and mathematical calculation.

Philosophical Trends and Religious Currents

In philosophy, two main trends stood out:

1. Dogmatic Rationalism: Knowledge a priori (without experience) concerning concepts like the soul or God (Descartes, Leibniz, and Wolff).
2. Empiricism: Knowledge a posteriori, based on experience (Hume, Hobbes, and Locke).

In religion, various currents flourished, including Voltaire's deism, pietism, and mystical occultism.

Plato: Historical and Sociocultural Background

The victory of the Greeks in the Persian Wars (479 BC), in addition to ending the Persian threat, transformed Athens into the most prosperous and cosmopolitan city of Greece.

The Rise and Fall of Athenian Democracy

Under Pericles (starting 462 BC), democratic reforms deepened, bringing the polis to its splendor. Despite its power, the Peloponnesian War ended with the defeat of Athens by Sparta, which imposed the dictatorship of the Thirty Tyrants. The decline of Athenian democracy was unstoppable. Alexander the Great later unified all the Greeks into an empire that had no place for democracy, political freedom, or community ideals.

Societal Shifts and the New Merchant Class

Greek society was traditionally divided between the nobility, devoted to arms and representing moral excellence, and the people, dedicated to agriculture and livestock. This structure was profoundly changed by the process of colonial expansion that began in the 8th century BC.

A new social type appeared: the merchant, who owed his prosperity to his own efforts. The collaboration of the popular classes in the victory over the Persians gave them prominence in the government of the polis.

Cultural Flourishing and the Sophist Conflict

These processes led to Athenian democratic development and an unprecedented cultural boom, which included:

• Tragedies (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides).
• Comedies (Aristophanes).
• Histories (Herodotus and Thucydides).
• Sculptures (Phidias and Praxiteles).
• Philosophy (Socrates and Plato).

In this context, the speculation about nature conducted by the Presocratics lost interest. What mattered was the ability to convince other citizens. The Sophists were especially popular for giving lessons to acquire these skills, but Socrates and Plato expressed their rejection of practices they considered destructive to the polis.