Philosophical Foundations of Ethics and Citizenship

Happiness and Justice

Aristotle says that every action and choice aim at some good. But there are many goods and purposes of a very different nature. Happiness, or the good, seems, then, to be that toward which all actions constituting human life are directed and ordered. Just as we are necessarily moral, we are also inclined toward happiness. Human beings by nature tend toward happiness. Happiness, for one, may be money and wealth; for another, political power. The disposition of justice is that by which people practice what is right and want to act fairly and justly. Justice is variable, encompassing different forms such as:

• Justice as a virtue
• Quality of social order
• Commutative justice
• Distributive justice
• Legal justice

Material and Teleological Ethics

For ethical **Hedonists**, the distinctive characteristic of hedonic systems is that happiness consists in pleasure, or in certain pleasures, to the extent that what is good is good precisely because it causes pleasure.

**Eudaemonism** ethics holds that happiness consists in the exercise, activity, and perfection of the skills and capacities of the human being.

**Utilitarianism** argues that the good is what is useful, and therefore utility serves as the principle of ethics.

Understanding the Concept of Citizenship

Citizenship is the way citizens relate to the state. Public life expresses the defining characteristics of the integration of citizens into the political community in each case.

The human being is born and lives in a culture that shapes their identity: the cultural identity of an individual within a group of people.

Nation refers to communities integrated within a geographical area by shared customs and cultural traditions, even without being organized as strictly political associations. The nation evolves from being a community based on cultural tradition and descent to becoming a nation of citizens.

Models of Citizenship

Models of citizenship typically include distinct components:

• **Civil Component:** Composed of the rights necessary for individual liberty: freedom of expression, freedom of thought and religion, property rights, and the right to justice.
• **Political Component:** Refers to the right to participate in the exercise of political power, either as a member of that power or as an elector of its members.
• **Social Component:** Encompasses social, economic, and cultural rights.