Philosophical Foundations: From Ancient Ideas to Modern Science

Philosophical Concepts: Ancient to Modern

Natural Concepts and Aristotelian Science

The natural concept, stemming from nominalist philosophy, applies across all fields. Natural science, in this view, distinguishes itself from Aristotelian science. For Aristotle, nature was the principle of movement; a being is natural if it possesses life.

Ockham and Mathematical Thinking

Ockham's mathematical thinking, influenced by Galilean motion, posits that narrative events (symbols) must be measurable and expressible mathematically. He sought the laws of phenomena, believing that true nature reveals itself. Ockham suggested that our mind is limited, while God is unlimited (or perhaps we do not know God, or we are gods). The human mind can only grasp things relating to humanity; a God to worship is not known through human reason alone. Human intelligence must study humanity.

Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy

In the Middle Ages, Aquinas published Aristotle's ideas and applied them to the proof of God's existence. He argued that while reason may demonstrate God's existence, the Bible also reveals it. For Aquinas, reason and faith are separate paths. In cases where there is no correlation between reason and faith, one must give preference to faith and discard reason.

Universal Concepts: Plato's Perspective

Universals, for Plato, exist only as universal concepts. He defined ideas as a universal reality, things owned by individuals; these ideas exist in Platonic reality.

Theories of Knowledge: Plato vs. Aristotle

Plato believed the origin of knowledge is reminiscence—ideas we possess at birth. In contrast, Aristotle posited that the source of knowledge lies within ourselves, a process of manufacturing understanding. This process begins with capturing the outside world, storing it in reproductive imagination and memory, then using creative imagination to link images to other images. Passive intelligence eventually transforms these images into ideas.

From Rationalism to Modern Thought

This period saw the *discarding of rationalism* and the crystallization of absolute monarchies, as exemplified by Hobbes' view that "man is selfish by nature." It was a time for assessing work, where nature adapted to human needs, and religion became a personal issue. This era spans from the publication of Descartes' Discourse on Method to the works of Kant.

Empirical Sciences and the Galilean Method

The empirical sciences, particularly the hypothetico-deductive method of Galileo, emphasize the final cause and a structured approach:

• Observation of Facts: The scientist focuses on studying the characteristics of the phenomenon under investigation.
• Formulation of Hypothesis: A provisional explanation of the phenomenon, serving a dual role.
• Mathematization: The set of laws forms a theory, applied deductively like axioms in mathematics.
• Verification: Once formulated, the hypothesis must be verified through methods, such as those proposed by John Stuart Mill.