Philosophical Ethics: Key Thinkers and Theories

Socrates: Reason, Morality, and Truth

Socrates defended intellectualism, asserting that reason and morality are central to human actions. He believed that evil actions stem from ignorance, as no one knowingly chooses to do wrong; if one truly understands what is good, they will act accordingly. There is also a proposal that our actions are based on the consequences of that behavior, leading us to reflect and then decide which course to embrace. Socrates proposed a method to find the truth within ourselves. He promoted dialogue, understood as a reasoned conversation, as the best way to access truth.

Epicurus: The Pursuit of Tranquil Pleasure

Epicurus believed that pleasure was the ultimate good and should take precedence in our lives. His ethics are therefore called hedonistic. Epicurus aimed to achieve happiness through tranquility, emphasizing the enjoyment of spiritual calm, which he called Ataraxia, and the avoidance of pain.

Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good for All

Utilitarianism is a theory stating that the moral rightness of an action is justified only if it is useful and produces the greatest good. An action is morally correct if, and only if, it produces the greatest benefits.

Key characteristics of Utilitarianism include:

• It prioritizes universal happiness, seeking the greatest good for all people.
• It is a maximizer, aiming for the greatest possible good.
• It is consequentialist, valuing an action based solely on whether its consequences are good or bad.

Pros: It considers the benefit not only for oneself but also for others, offering broader advantages.

Cons: It can be difficult to calculate the happiness of each person and to ensure an equitable distribution of happiness.

Kantian Ethics: Duty, Reason, and Universal Law

Kantian ethics, as proposed by Kant, asserts that happiness is not always good, as it can sometimes lead to arrogance or be found through morally questionable means. Kant argued that what is truly good is not happiness itself, but rather the willingness to act according to reason. He distinguished between two types of imperatives:

• Hypothetical Imperatives: Actions taken to achieve a specific end.
• Categorical Imperatives: Actions that are good in themselves, regardless of their consequences. Kant stated that we should always utilize the categorical imperative.

According to Kant, we should act only according to a maxim whereby we can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. The second formulation emphasizes treating humanity, whether in oneself or in others, always as an end and never merely as a means. Kantian ethics insists on universalizable moral standards that do not allow for exceptions based on personal circumstances or situations. Kant emphasized that a moral action is one performed purely out of duty and good intention, rather than for any desired outcome.

Understanding Moral and Legal Responsibility

Causal Responsibility

Causal responsibility refers to an individual being responsible for causing an action, particularly when they are aware of what they are doing and its direct consequences.

Legal Responsibility

Legal responsibility pertains to actions that involve an individual and warrant punishment under the law, leading to legal repercussions.

Morality and Moral Obligations

Morality is intrinsically linked to moral behaviors and can be examined in various contexts. Individuals are responsible for the moral obligations they possess. However, there are individuals who, despite not feeling a moral obligation, carry out actions that deserve censure.