Philosophical Concepts: Unity, Relativism, and Aristotelian Substance

The Nature of Unity and Opposition

One is something that belongs to all things because everything is one, is something, is itself, and in this regard has to be determined by the unit. However, the "unit" or "one" is something determined by opposition to the "other."

Skepticism, Relativism, and Convention

Skeptics and relativists dominated the field of knowledge and ethics. Truth becomes subjective or collective. "Reality" is what the human individual or collective determines as such. There is something that truly consists of things, but these are as we think they are; therefore, one cannot really substantiate or justify anything.

Rules vary from one community to another or over time. This is because the Nomos is "by convention," meaning it is artificial, contingent, and false. What is considered fair, useful, or good in a community is the result of circumstances and agreements reached by its members. Consequently, if decided, these agreements can change. Affirming the conventional nature of Nomos raises questions about the legitimacy and binding nature of the rules.

Cosmic Order and the State

The order and harmony of the cosmos, which is expressed by the Idea of Good, must be reflected in the state and also in the soul of the philosopher ruler.

Aristotle's Study of Sentient Beings

Aristotle claimed or pursued a real rational study of sentient beings—that is, concrete beings subject to change and transformation. He also stated that the essence of individual beings is not "outside" but "inside" the beings themselves, structuring or organizing the material of which they are made and determining the changes and activities these beings will develop to reach their full development or upgrade.

Principles of Natural Beings

The principle that determines what things are and which, in turn, regulates or causes changes is called the second form and substance, and it is eternal and universal. The other principle of beings that are natural compounds is the subject (that of which they are composed).

Being in Act vs. Being in Power

Knowledge of natural beings requires taking into account the difference between being in act and being in power:

• Being in Power: Refers to a being not yet having certain features but capable of reaching them; it is the ability to change or transform.
• Being in Act: Is what a being is and is developing its maximum fullness; it is the goal toward which all modifications tend.

The Four Causes for Scientific Knowledge

Another difference from Plato is that sensory information is the necessary starting point for knowledge, but feelings alone are insufficient. Training is necessary on the part of the concept of understanding. This concept is formed through a process of abstraction and provides the causes or principles that allow us to explain reality. Therefore, to conduct science of natural things, one must consider the four causes:

1. Formal Cause: The essence.
2. Material Cause: What something is made of.
3. Efficient Cause: That which creates or terminates the movement.
4. Final Cause: That for which something exists.