Philosophical Concepts: Knowledge, Reality, and Human Action

Explanatory Models of Knowledge

Realism: Reality (the object to be known) exists independently and is not dependent on the subject. It implies the existence of the world. The person has an open mind and believes that the ability to understand lies within oneself and to know things as they are. Moreover, they possess a natural, spontaneous, and confident attitude.

Idealism: We know as we perceive, depending on the individual. A fly perceives differently from us, so its way of knowing is different. Idealism questions the existence of the world. The person believes that the ability to understand depends on the individual, and knowledge depends on the way one perceives. They adopt an artificial, voluntary, and critical attitude towards learning.

Understanding Reality: Definitions

There are two ways of defining reality: one negative and one positive.

Negative Definition of Reality

Reality is non-apparent (that which does not seem to be).

Positive Definitions of Reality

• Contingent Reality

  Something that exists now but might not have existed years ago, or might cease to exist in a few years.

• Necessary Reality

  Truth is only what exists and is essential for life; it cannot exist otherwise or cease to exist.

• Sensory/Physical Reality

  We call real what we perceive through the senses. The more senses that can confirm it, the more likely we are to consider it real.

• Psychic Reality

  To describe the reality of our thoughts, imaginations, desires, etc., we must distinguish two aspects: the activity itself (thinking, imagining, etc.) and the content referred to by the activity. (For example, if I think of a golden mountain, the act of thinking is real, but the golden mountain itself is not real.)

• Virtual Reality

  Refers to the set of perceptions and feelings generated with the help of technical support.

Understanding Action

An action is something we do consciously. For example, dreaming, speaking, or breathing during sleep are not actions because we do them unconsciously.

Involuntary Actions

• Force

  Actions done by force, whose origin is external and we do not contribute to them (e.g., being dragged by the wind).

• Ignorance of Circumstances

  (e.g., a driver hits a pedestrian because they have not seen them).

Voluntary Actions

• Mixed Actions (Joint Actions)

  Actions performed out of fear of a greater evil. The subject can choose whether or not to perform them but does not desire them at all. (e.g., jettisoning cargo to prevent a ship from wrecking).

• Conscious/Voluntary Actions

  Actions carried out by the subject with the intention of achieving an end.

• Actions Not Culpable Due to Ignorance

  When the subject does not intend any consequences and is not aware of what they are doing (e.g., accidentally hitting someone).

• Actions Culpable Due to Ignorance

  The result is predictable, and the subject is aware of what they are doing.

Elements of Action

To determine if an action is voluntary or involuntary, the following elements must be considered:

Intent

Intentions are consciously accepted inclinations that lead one to do something. They may be unconscious or conscious:

• Spontaneous Intent

  Something that occurs without conscious planning (e.g., feeling hungry).

• Conscious Intent

  Something that is consciously chosen or decided upon (e.g., deciding to buy a book).

Ends and Means

The end of an action refers to the desires we consciously and explicitly propose to achieve.

Consequences

Are the predictable or unpredictable outcomes of an action. There are two types of consequences:

• Predictable Consequences

  Outcomes that are expected; one is responsible for them.

• Unpredictable Consequences

  Outcomes that cannot be foreseen. One cannot be held responsible unless the consequences should have been expected.

Direction/Meaning

The direction or meaning of an action helps us understand why it occurs and why it unfolded in one way and not another.