Philosophical Concepts: Existentialism, Ethics, and Free Will

Existentialism and the Meaning of Life

Albert Camus and the Myth of Sisyphus

Existentialism: Life is often seen as pointless and repetitive. Camus explored this in The Myth of Sisyphus, where Sisyphus is condemned to eternally roll a boulder up a hill.

Søren Kierkegaard: Christian Existentialism

Kierkegaard, a Danish existentialist, argued that humans often love an idealistic picture in their minds. He believed that only God can live up to the ideals we hold; He is the only thing worthy of our love and passionate desire, as all other things do not last (Christian Existentialist perspective).

Problem: For the atheist, is God just another fantasy?

Richard Taylor: The Value of Striving

Taylor argues that people think life is meaningless when things don't turn out as they wish. For him, this is based on a misunderstanding. Accomplishments are not the point of striving; the point is the striving itself, otherwise life would be boring. This involves setting new goals and completing them.

In Taylor's interpretation of The Myth of Sisyphus, Sisyphus is given an enchantment that makes him want to carry the rock. He feels happy doing it. The point of living is simply to be living, focusing on the present rather than the future.

Why aren't more people happy?

• Goals are not those which we choose for ourselves.
• We find goals too hard to reach (striving wouldn't be striving if it were easy).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Before achieving self-actualization, the lower needs must be fulfilled.

1. Physiological: Breathing, food, sex, sleep.
2. Safety: Security of body, employment, resources.
3. Love and Belonging: Friends, family.
4. Esteem: Self-esteem, achievement, respect.
5. Self-Actualization: Morality, creativity.

Ethical Frameworks and the Source of Morality

Major Ethical Theories

• Utilitarianism (Mill): Focuses on results (consequences).
• Deontology (Kant): Focuses on rules (duty).

Defining Morality

Morality concerns what we ought or ought not to do; it is about doing the right thing. Moral principles can conflict with laws (e.g., apartheid) or personal safety (e.g., a person hiding a gun to act against harmful principles).

Where Does Morality Come From?

1. Morality Comes From Us (Subjectivism)

Feelings Theory: When you judge an action, you have feelings about what is being done. This is a claim about yourself (things are bad because you disapprove of them).

Boo-Hoorah Theory (Emotivism): This theory holds that moral statements are not making a claim but merely expressing feelings. There is no objective fact of the matter about whether an action is wrong.

Problems with Subjectivism: If morality is based purely on feelings, who determines what is wrong? (This applies to both Feelings Theory and Emotivism).

2. Morality Comes From God (Divine Command Theory)

Morality is not something we can decide; there is an independent fact of the matter about what is right and wrong, determined by a divine being.

Problem: What would happen if God decreed that something universally considered evil was right?

3. Morality is Objective (Moral Realism)

Things are right or wrong regardless of human or divine opinion. Morality is objective, independent of all of us, and "out there."

Problem: How do we detect or perceive this objective wrongness?

Free Will Versus Determinism

C. A. Campbell: Libertarianism

The Scottish philosopher C. A. Campbell argued that human beings make free choices (Libertarianism). While biological makeup and environment determine our desires, when we make a moral choice, we act freely—we can choose to go against our strongest desires.

Campbell suggested that the concept of Buridan's Ass differentiates us from computers, implying a genuine ability to choose between equally desirable options.

P. B. Blanshard: Determinism

Blanshard argued that all actions are determined by environment and biological makeup. When we make a moral choice, we are obeying a moral desire that we absorbed from our upbringing. We always obey the strongest desire.

Determinism: Everything we do is determined by desires stemming from our biological makeup and environment. We are often unaware of all the influences acting upon us.