Philosophical Anthropology: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle on Human Nature

Understanding Philosophical Anthropology

Anthropology, at its core, refers to the study of humanity. Philosophical anthropology is a distinct discipline within philosophy that delves into the fundamental question: "Who is man?" While many disciplines, such as psychology, medicine, and cultural anthropology, also study human beings, philosophical anthropology differentiates itself by focusing on the essential characteristics and determinants of what it means to be human. It questions what makes a human being truly human, and how this distinguishes us from other entities. This field does not primarily reflect on the specific actions of human beings or the characteristics of what it considers real, but rather examines the very essence of human existence.

Socrates: Self-Knowledge and the Soul

Socrates taught that the most important pursuit in a person's life is the search for self-knowledge and the care of the soul. He conceived of humanity as beings capable of profound questioning, emphasizing the need to seek the truth of life within one's inner self.

Plato: Dualism and the Tripartite Soul

Plato, influenced by various religious groups, conceived of man as a dual being, consisting of two distinct elements: the soul and the body. Plato believed the soul was immortal and, prior to birth, existed in contact with the gods in a purer, immaterial world. He posited that at times, the soul "falls" and becomes shackled by the body. Plato also discussed the problems the body presents when it seeks to indulge its desires and prioritize comfort, negatively interfering with the soul's natural functions.

Furthermore, Plato described the soul as having three distinct parts, each with different functions that guide us towards what is good and right:

• The Rational Part: This part always seeks knowledge and truth.
• The Appetitive Part: This part strives to satisfy desires and physical needs.
• The Irascible Part: This part emerges when we experience anger or indignation about something unjust.

Plato asserted that the more we develop the rational part, the more the other parts are brought into balance or weakened in their negative influence.

Aristotle: Reason, Soul, and Form

Aristotle privileged reason above all else, famously stating: "Man is a rational animal." He believed that reason sets humanity apart from other living beings. Aristotle also conceived of man as having both a soul and a body, stating that the soul is the principle of movement and knowledge.

He performed a classification of living and inanimate beings. Animals and plants belong to the living group, as they are born, grow, die, eat, and move. Aristotle referred to these capabilities of living beings as "souls," establishing a hierarchy among them:

• Nutritive Soul: Responsible for growth, reproduction, and metabolism (found in plants, animals, humans).
• Sensitive Soul: Responsible for sensation and locomotion (found in animals, humans).
• Rational Soul: Responsible for thought and reason (found only in humans).

For Aristotle, the relationship between the body and soul is analogous to that between matter and form: the body is the matter, and the soul is the form that gives it its essence and purpose.