Perception, Representation, and Symbolization Processes

Perception

First-level process. Perception is the result of the combination of two cognitive processes: sensation and perception. The human mind collects information from the environment through the sense organs and gives it significance; its perception is the result (the perceived form or object is present in our minds).

• Characteristics: Requires the presence of a stimulus.
• From the data of the senses, perception occurs in a unique, practical space and time. It is direct, sharp, and exact, not amending its qualities.

Representation

Second-level process, involving memory and imagination. Memory allows us to retain information and replay it without the stimulus.

• Image result: Does not require a stimulus.
• Made from unique past perceptions and is concrete.
• Time is not tied to a specific space; it represents diffuse and modified qualities.

Symbolization

Third-level process. Symbolic thought and language processes allow us to rework information. The result is the concept (mental representations of the object in symbolic processes).

• Characteristics: Does not require the presence of the object or image in the mind.
• The object is presented in a universal way, i.e., all of the same class, and in an abstract way, with common features, and is presented as a symbol.

Formation of Concepts

Concepts are formed by:

• Abstraction: Extracting features.
• Symbolization: A symbol is invented to represent the concept.
• Generalization: Grouping all things that have these characteristics, represented by the same concept.

Process:

• Conventional: Selecting the character that we agree upon.
• Partial: Disregarding part of the object.
• Social: Made by linguistic communities.

Fallacies

A fallacy is an argument that seems well-reasoned but is actually misleading.

• Formal Fallacies: They are flawed by default.
• Informal Fallacies: They have a false defect in content.

Types of Fallacies:

• Fallacy of Ambiguity: Takes advantage of the double meaning of a word.
• Material Fallacy: Used by someone who knows less about an issue than we do.
• Ad Hominem Fallacy: Someone uses premises that do not serve our purpose on an issue that they dominate.
• Argumentum ad Populum: Tries to win popular approval without arguing with evidence.
• Argumentum ad Baculum: Hidden threat or catastrophic consequences.
• Argumentum ad Hominem: Tries to detract from what someone says by discrediting them.
  • Offensive: The person is unreliable.
  • Circumstantial: The person has an interest in what is being discussed.
• Argumentum ad Verecundiam: Uses an authority to gain credibility.
• Argumentum ad Ignorantiam: There is no sufficient evidence, or it could not be demonstrated.
• Argumentum Tu Quoque: Someone accuses you of having done something.
• Ex Populo: Most people do it or believe it.
• Complex Questions: Impounding the person by asking questions that are not very understandable.
• False Cause: Establishing relationships from a mere coincidence between two independent events.
• Circular Argument: The premises presuppose the conclusion.

Sophism

Sophisms are common in the media. They consciously manipulate or deceive, trying to present reasons without enthusiasm.