PC Hardware Essentials: Microprocessors, Ports, and Storage

Understanding the Microprocessor

The microprocessor (mP) is an integrated circuit or chip whose primary function is to interpret and execute software operations. These operations are stored in memory as a set of instructions, along with the data they operate on.

The evolution of the microprocessor has largely followed Moore's Law, which states that the number of transistors on a chip doubles approximately every 18 months. This rule also applies to the rate at which their performance increases.

Microprocessor Evolution and Manufacturers

Because microprocessors from manufacturers like Intel and AMD often have different packaging, the motherboards designed for them are also different. Key manufacturers in the industry include:

• VIA
• SiS
• AMD
• ATI (now part of AMD)
• Intel
• NVIDIA

Overclocking Microprocessors

The microprocessor's speed (determined by its internal clock or system clock) is obtained by multiplying a base frequency by a multiplier. Overclocking involves increasing this speed beyond the manufacturer's default settings to achieve higher performance.

Motherboard Connectors

Most motherboard connectors adhere to the ATX standard, with ongoing updates.

Power Connectors

Power connectors can be ATX, ATX12V, ATX2.0, or ATX2.2. When connecting these to the motherboard, there is only one correct way; they are keyed to fit only one orientation due to the shape of their holes.

Peripheral Connectors (PS/2)

The keyboard connector is typically a Mini-DIN 6 (PS/2) female port. The mouse connector uses the same Mini-DIN connection type. The ATX standard specifies purple for keyboard ports and green for mouse ports.

RAM Memory Sockets

RAM memory sockets in current computers can be classified into different types:

• DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module):
  • 168-pin for SDRAM
  • 184-pin for DDR and Rambus
  • 240-pin for DDR2
  • DDR3 (also 240-pin, but incompatible with DDR2)
  • DDR4 (288-pin)

Serial and Parallel Ports

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

The USB serial port offers various characteristics across its versions:

• Version 1.x: Speeds from 1.5 Mbps (low-speed) to 12 Mbps (full-speed) for peripherals.
• Supports connecting up to 127 devices.
• Cable segments can be up to 5 meters long.
• Uses 4 wires (+5V, Ground, Data-, Data+) with 90 Ohm impedance.
• Commonly used for keyboards, mice, and other peripherals.
• Features Plug and Play functionality.
• Hubs are available for connecting multiple devices.
• Version 2.0: Achieves speeds up to 480 Mbits/s (high-speed).

IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

The IEEE 1394, also known as FireWire, is another serial port similar to USB but generally offers greater speed, efficiency, and stability. It is mostly used for professional peripherals, such as video cameras and external hard drives.

Storage Controllers and Interfaces

Hard Drive Controllers (IDE/PATA)

Storage controllers are typically integrated into the motherboard's chipset. They usually come with a flat ribbon cable for connecting various units like floppy disk drives, hard disk drives, or CD-ROM drives.

Modern motherboards typically include one floppy connector and two IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) connectors. These IDE connectors are often enhanced IDE (EIDE) types, also known as Fast ATA or Ultra ATA. They allow connecting up to four devices and offer features such as:

• Security through passwords
• Power management to reduce consumption
• S.M.A.R.T. (Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology) to warn of impending failures

Transmission speeds of up to 133 MB/s are achieved with Ultra ATA, which uses an 80-wire cable with a 40-pin connector.

Serial ATA (SATA) Interface

The Serial ATA (SATA) interface is a system for connecting storage devices to the PC motherboard via a data cable, with speeds reaching 3 Gbps (SATA 300) and higher in newer versions. It is considered a modern substitute for the older Parallel ATA (PATA) standard.

To distinguish between the two, the older ATA standard is now often referred to as PATA, while the newer, faster standard is called SATA.