Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy: Knowledge, Life, and History

Ortega y Gasset's Theory of Knowledge

In 1916, José Ortega y Gasset distinguished two major periods in the history of thought: the realist and the idealist. Ortega's philosophy critically examines both. Realism, originating from Greek thought, considers a thing as an independent reality, distinct from human perception. It posits that things leave their mark on the mind, imprinting their image like a seal on wax – a concept Ortega termed the "thing-as-substance" metaphor.

Idealism, conversely, discards this notion. It asserts that consciousness finds things, but these things do not emerge into consciousness as external entities. Instead, things are objects of consciousness, which are essentially ideas – a concept Ortega described as the "container and content" metaphor.

By 1924, Ortega proposed a more integrated view. He argued that if there is thought, there is a world that feeds it, and they exist together without possible separation. To illustrate this, he introduced a third metaphor: the Dioscuri, symbolizing the "mutual existence of man and the world." This means we cannot understand the world in isolation (as in realism) nor the "I" in isolation (as in idealism). Instead, they are understood together in dynamic interaction.

Ortega defines life as the active exchange between the self and sensible things. Life, for him, is inherently biographical; the radical reality is our individual life. This concept is encapsulated in his famous phrase: "I am myself and my circumstance, and if I do not save it, I do not save myself." This profound statement underscores the inseparable connection between the subject and the world (object).

Ortega y Gasset's Metaphysics and Vital Reason

Ortega's metaphysical thought posits that thought is not prior to life; rather, thought is a living fragment. Life, he argues, is more radical than thought, a direct challenge to Descartes' "I think, therefore I am."

An analysis of life reveals its fundamental attributes or structures:

• Life is an immediate revelation of itself.
• Living is a reality only if it exists for oneself; all life is lived experience.
• We realize ourselves by realizing that we live.

This realization finds us immersed in the world, surrounded by things. The relationship between the self and things is inseparable; they constitute life's fundamental task, activity, and engagement. Things, in Ortega's view, are pragmatic: they represent actions, facilities, and difficulties encountered in our daily activities. We engage with things, and in doing so, we also shape ourselves. Our being is not predetermined; instead, we decide what we become through our actions.

Our freedom and decision-making capacity, however, are limited by the world we inhabit, by our specific circumstances, and by our unique life. Ortega emphasizes that circumstance is not merely spatial but fundamentally historical. Life itself is temporal change, defined by historical time and events.

Ortega integrates reason and life through his concept of ratiovitalism, which broadens the horizons of reason. This philosophical stance directly opposes traditional rationalism, which often separates life and history. Later, Ortega refined "vital reason" into "historical reason," further emphasizing the crucial role of history in understanding human existence. His historical vision of life and human existence culminates in the theory of perspectivism. This theory asserts that there are multiple points of view or perspectives, and the world is a plurality of prospects, challenging any tendency to absolutize a single worldview.