The Nineteenth Century: Industrialization, Society, and Global Power Shifts

The First Industrial Revolution: Economic Shifts

Around 1780, the Industrial Revolution began in northern England (Manchester). This period marked a fundamental change in technologies, company organization, economy, and society, leading to a transformation in the production of goods. It started when some clothing entrepreneurs began using machinery, which increased productivity, and organized production in factories. Later, steam engines were introduced to power these machines. These business owners, as capital providers, reaped all the profits. These characteristics—the pursuit of profit, the central role of capital providers, and the market's pivotal role in resource distribution—transformed the economic system from late feudalism and merchant capitalism into full-fledged capitalism. These changes were driven by the need to increase production to meet the demands of Great Britain's growing population, especially for export to India. This was made possible by the migration of rural populations to urban areas like Manchester, where they worked in factories. These innovations were subsequently adopted across other parts of Europe. However, around 1850, this initial phase of industrial growth seemed to reach its limits, and profits began to decline. Consequently, capital began to flow into a new, highly profitable venture: the construction of railway networks. This development spurred the growth of the iron and steel industry and revolutionized communication systems, trade, and everyday life. New technologies had already been introduced in this industry, such as blast furnaces (reaching high temperatures for better metal melting) and the use of coke (mineral coal).

In 1866, the railway construction bubble burst, triggering a significant economic crisis. Around 1870, entrepreneurs began implementing dramatic changes in company organization and technologies, leading historians to term this period the Second Industrial Revolution. This era saw a process of company mergers, creating large corporations with a tendency towards forming monopolies. Banks (through loans) and stock markets became the primary means of funding these large corporations. While steam engines became more common, companies also began to utilize oil and electricity as new power sources. New systems of factory work were introduced: Taylorism, which involved decomposing work into simple, mechanical tasks performed by individual workers; and assembly lines, organizing production in long lines where each worker performs a single task until the final product is complete. Finally, there was significant development in the chemical and energy production industries. These large corporations sought to control key sectors (monopolies) and exported their products to colonies and dependent territories, a practice known as Imperialism. Industrialization also expanded to non-European countries, notably the USA and Japan.

Social Transformations: From Estates to Class Society

In the 19th century, following the Industrial and Liberal Revolutions, the traditional society of estates disappeared, transforming into a class society. Society became divided into distinct groups: the upper, middle, and lower classes. While all classes were subject to the same legal codes, these laws often granted political power to the upper and middle classes and primarily defended their property and interests. An individual's belonging to a class was determined by their wealth and property.

• Upper Class: Comprised large landowners (including nobility and wealthy bourgeoisie who acquired vast estates) and owners of major businesses (large companies, factories, banks, etc.).
• Middle Class: Consisted of owners of land and businesses, though typically on a smaller scale than the upper class.
• Lower Class: Possessed almost no property and relied solely on salaries. Life conditions were particularly harsh for this group, especially for the factory workers or proletarians who emerged and grew with the Industrial Revolution.

Political Evolution: Absolutism to Liberal Democracies

With the American (1774-1783) and especially the French (1789) Revolutions, followed by those of 1820, 1830, and 1848, Absolutism was abolished, giving rise to a new liberal political system. Inspired by Enlightenment political ideas and Parliamentarism, and promoted by the bourgeoisie, these revolutions limited the power of monarchs through Constitutions and Bills of Rights. A clear division of powers was established: executive, legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was typically elected by wealthier citizens (upper and sometimes middle classes) through restricted suffrage (suffragio censitario). The purpose of these powers was to serve the interests of the Nation (the group of people residing in a territory) which held ultimate authority (National sovereignty). In practice, these institutions often defended the interests of the upper and middle classes. This liberal system was organized into States. Given the principle of National sovereignty, they became known as Nation-States. A Nation-State is a political organization of a territory and its population (the Nation), a concept that solidified in the 19th century. Its main characteristic is the existence of a single, supreme political power within that territory. This power holds the monopoly on law-making, judging, governing, and the legitimate use of violence (through the national army and police). Throughout the 19th century, a process of nation-building occurred: these Nation-States fostered common characteristics (especially cultural ones) among their inhabitants through laws, patronage, and education. Nationalism was the ideology asserting that people belong to a Nation based on their state of residence or shared cultural characteristics, and that a primary objective for individuals and States is to defend and strengthen this Nation.

Emerging Ideologies: Democracy, Socialism, and Anarchism

During the 19th century, other ideologies emerged, seeking to reform or fundamentally change this liberal system. These primarily included democratic ideology, socialism, and anarchism.

• Democrats: Advocated for universal participation in decision-making processes. They promoted universal suffrage (allowing all men over a certain age to vote), the right for any man (over a certain age) to be a candidate and be elected, and the expansion of basic liberal rights to include the right of association and social rights (such as the right to education or a decent life).
• Early feminists, such as Olympe de Gouges, also championed equal rights for women, including the right to vote.
• Anarchists (e.g., Bakunin, Proudhon, Kropotkin) were one of the two main ideologies of the labor movement. They promoted the liberation of workers (especially factory workers) from exploitation by entrepreneurs, capitalists, or the bourgeoisie. Anarchism advocated for the destruction of the State, viewing it as a tool used by exploiters to maintain their control, and proposed an alternative society based on the free organization of people and the fair, rational distribution of resources through cooperation rather than competition.
• Socialists (e.g., Marx, Engels) represented the other major ideology of the labor movement. They promoted the “conquest of the State” by the proletariat to use it for the liberation of the working class, advocating for the creation of political parties and trade unions to achieve this goal. Marx and Engels analyzed capitalism and its inherent exploitation (based on appropriating profits from human labor) and examined economic relationships throughout human history to justify the necessity of societal transformation.
• The labor movement also promoted the creation of Internationals, which were international associations of workers, based on the belief that all workers shared common problems and objectives, regardless of nationality.

19th Century Philosophy and Art Movements

During the 19th century, several philosophical movements emerged. Idealism (Hegel), influenced by Kant, posited that ideas and reality were intrinsically linked, and that reason could organize the world. It was connected to Romanticism, Nationalism (viewing the State as the goal of history), and Liberalism (emphasizing freedom after the French Revolution). Positivism (Comte), influenced by science and the Industrial Revolution, argued that only observable facts constituted reality and that science's role was to discover universal laws. Herbert Spencer, a key figure, famously compared society to a living organism. Materialism (Marx) separated ideas from material reality, asserting that history was driven by class struggle, with economics forming the base and ideology serving as a superstructure. Marx believed the proletariat would ultimately overcome alienation and exploitation. In the late century, thinkers like Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Kierkegaard challenged the primacy of reason, promoting intuition, vitalism, and nihilism. Nietzsche, in particular, introduced the influential ideas of the Übermensch (superman) and eternal return. In art, Romanticism emphasized emotions and individual freedom (e.g., Goya, Delacroix, Beethoven). Realism critically portrayed industrial society (e.g., Courbet, Zola). Industrial architecture innovatively utilized iron and glass (e.g., Crystal Palace, Eiffel Tower). Impressionism captured fleeting moments of light and movement (e.g., Monet, Renoir, Debussy), while Post-Impressionism developed more personal and expressive styles (e.g., Van Gogh, Cézanne). Art Nouveau adorned buildings with organic, natural forms (e.g., Horta, Klimt). Later, Avant-garde movements radically broke with artistic traditions, including Fauvism (emphasizing color), Expressionism (conveying emotion), and Cubism (exploring geometry, pioneered by Picasso).

Key Historical Events: Revolutions, Unifications, and Imperialism

The 'long 19th century' commenced with the French Revolution (1789–1799), which served as a model for subsequent liberal revolutions (1820, 1830, 1848), introducing constitutions, the division of powers, and parliamentary systems across Europe. This period led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), during which coalitions attempted to defeat revolutionary France, only for France to expand its influence instead. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) saw France achieve hegemony in Europe until Napoleon's eventual defeat. The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) subsequently restored a balance of power among European monarchies. Throughout the century, major powers like the UK (a vast empire due to its holdings in India and industrial growth), France (especially under Napoleon III), and the Eastern empires (Russia, Austria, Prussia) maintained a relative peace, punctuated primarily by wars of unification. Italy unified (1859–1870) with the Kingdom of Sardinia, aided by France, fighting against Austria. Similarly, Germany unified (1863–1871) under Prussian leadership, which later defeated France and emerged as the dominant power in Europe. Otto von Bismarck, Germany’s Chancellor, skillfully maintained peace through a complex system of alliances between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, primarily to prevent war over the Eastern Question (the decline of the Ottoman Empire and resulting conflicts in the Balkans). He also diplomatically isolated France, particularly during the Scramble for Africa (1880s–1914), a period when industrial powers rapidly colonized vast portions of the world. The Berlin Conference (1884–85) established rules for the partition and colonization of Africa. This era, known as the Age of Imperialism, witnessed European nations (along with the USA and Japan) establish control over colonies in Africa, Asia, and beyond, organizing their economies and societies to primarily benefit the colonizers and thereby deepening global inequalities. After Bismarck’s resignation in 1890, international tensions escalated due to intensifying imperial rivalries, recurring Balkan crises, and a burgeoning arms race (e.g., the Anglo-German naval race). Two major alliance blocs formed: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, UK). In 1914, the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir in Sarajevo triggered a chain of war declarations, culminating in World War I. This conflict effectively marked the end of the 'long 19th century' and the beginning of the 'short 20th century'.