The Netherlands: A Political History

1. Historical-Political Analysis

The constant struggle against water compelled the civilian population to organize levee maintenance. From the 13th and 14th centuries, "tips" formed to regulate their control.

Furthermore, the nature of their land prevented the consolidation of a powerful landed aristocracy, and feudalism did not take root. The inhabitants were predominantly smallholder farmers.

The current Kingdom of the Netherlands is the historical successor of the former Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands North. It emerged as an independent entity after the Wars of Religion of the 16th and 17th centuries.

This historical period, known as the Eighty Years' War, was a continuous conflict against the Hispanic Monarchy from the 1566 uprising. It concluded with the Peace of Westphalia and the Treaty of Münster in 1648.

Stadtholder

Following independence from the Hispanic Monarchy, the Republic was established. A key institution was the "stadtholder," appointed by the Provincial States of each province, typically from the nobility. Duties included directing war and foreign policy.

The Estates General

Originating in the 15th century, the Estates General was the highest institution of the Republic. It comprised representatives of provincial governments, cities, and the nobility of each province.

Holland, the dominant province, championed the interests of the commercial bourgeoisie of the ports against the interests of the interior provinces, who were more aligned with the stadtholder due to the constant threat of land invasion.

The Estates General selected:

• 12 members of the Council of State
• A representative of the House of Orange
• An Admiral
• A Captain-General

The Stadtholder aimed to accumulate the positions of Commander and Admiral to gain power. However, representatives of coastal cities, particularly regarding the Admiral position and control of the fleet, resisted.

Therefore:

• The Navy supported the States General
• The Army supported the Stadtholder

Significant power remained with the provinces. During peacetime, Regents governed major cities. In Holland, the Grand Pensionary, a counsel appointed by the provincial governments, held executive functions not only in the province but throughout the country.

Each province retained its own institutions, with the Regente prominent in cities.

During the 17th century, colonial expansion from port cities clashed with Great Britain, another rising naval power. Britain eventually expelled the Netherlands from several enclaves.

However, dynastic links between the House of Orange-Nassau and the British Crown from 1669 resulted in the stadtholder becoming King William III of England. This created an internal conflict between Anglophiles and the House of Orange, and Anglophobe merchants.

France, also wary of the small republic's economic power, launched military incursions from the late 17th century.

Between 1795 and 1814, the French invasion transformed the Netherlands' political structure:

• Initially, it became the Batavian Republic until 1806
• Then, the Kingdom of Holland
• Finally, it was annexed to the French Empire

The Batavian Republic adopted a French-inspired constitution:

• Provinces and privileges of great families were abolished
• The Stadtholder was removed
• A modern parliament, the National Assembly, was created
• A centralized system with departments was established

In 1797, the parliament was amended to have two chambers.

After the Napoleonic Wars, the 1814 Congress of Vienna established the United Kingdom of the Netherlands under William I of Orange-Nassau. This united kingdom had a predominantly Protestant religion and Dutch language.

Tensions between the Protestant monarchy, Flemish Catholic nobles, and liberal Francophone bourgeoisie led to the 1830 revolt and independence of the Southern Provinces, forming the current Kingdom of Belgium.

Since 1830, the Kingdom of the Netherlands has retained its current territorial configuration, excluding colonial territories.

The kingdom created by the Congress of Vienna was a unitary and centralized state, not a collection of sovereign provinces and autonomous cities.

Constitutional reforms gradually transformed its political system from an autocratic constitutional monarchy to a liberal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

The bicameral parliament, still called the States-General, consisted of:

• The First Chamber, whose members were appointed for life by the King from among the kingdom's notables
• The Second Chamber, elected by the Provincial States

Sovereignty shifted from the provinces to the monarch, who exercised executive power, including appointing and dismissing ministers, dissolving and summoning the Estates General, declaring war and making peace, managing state finances, and controlling overseas possessions.

The 1840 constitutional reform aimed to strengthen the king's authority. However, under William II, only limited reforms were made, holding ministers criminally responsible for executive decisions but requiring the sovereign's consent.

The second constitutional amendment sought to reform the tax system, promote a free-market economy, and balance the powers of the Second Chamber and the King. It introduced full ministerial responsibility to the Second Chamber, granting it budgetary power and increased legislative capacity. The Second Chamber became directly elected, while the First Chamber remained elected by the provincial states.

Liberals and Catholics supported these measures, introducing freedom of worship, restoring the Catholic Church hierarchy, and establishing the right to freedom of education.

Religion has always been significant in the Netherlands, unifying against the Hispanic Monarchy and legitimizing the House of Orange-Nassau. Two religious movements existed:

• The traditionally dominant Netherlands Reformed Church
• A pre-reform movement leading to a separate church, followed by shopkeepers, artisans, and traders

These Protestant factions opposed the liberal movement during the 19th century, as the social movement emerged with the industrial revolution. The working class and labor movement formed the Social Democratic Party and a socialist union, alongside confessional unions.

These ideologies, based on different social and cultural segments within Dutch society, developed vertically and are known as pillars (Zuilen).

Over time, different pillars organized into social institutions, including parties and interest groups participating in political institutions, creating a dynamic called "pillarization" (Verzuiling).

In the early 20th century, two issues dominated Dutch politics: social problems arising from industrial working conditions and the political demands of the lower classes, and the problem of education, stemming from demands for public aid to private schools of the three major religious groups.

The 1917 constitutional reform, part of the "Great Pacification," introduced universal male suffrage and state financial support for religious school education.

2. The Political Institutions

2.1 The Parliament

The States General, the Dutch parliament, originated not from the institution of the same name, but from the National Assembly under French rule.

The States General comprises two chambers, with the Second Chamber holding clear predominance over the First Chamber (Senate).

The Second Chamber's 150 members are directly elected by proportional representation since 1917.

The First Chamber's 65 members are indirectly elected by an electoral college composed of members of provincial legislatures, voting proportionally.

Parliamentary functions have evolved to encompass full legislative powers, although the Constitution still states that the king shares legislative functions with the States General.

All legislation requires parliamentary approval by a simple majority. However, matters like parliamentarian salaries or laws affecting the Crown require a qualified majority.

Legislative initiative rests primarily with the executive. However, parliament provides political impetus through motions and controls the government through questions, inquiries, and investigative committees.

The Second Chamber performs these functions, while the First Chamber primarily ratifies laws, which it can amend, approve, or reject en bloc. It lacks initiative and rarely exercises its powers of government control.

The Dutch political system is parliamentary, with the government dependent on the Second Chamber's confidence. However, it maintains a separation of powers, with ministers and secretaries of state barred from simultaneous parliamentary membership.

Most parliamentary work occurs in committees, which amend bills before plenary votes.

Committee composition reflects the administrative structure and the board's majority relationship.

As mentioned, the executive holds legislative initiative, submitting projects to the Council of State for advice on constitutionality and consulting the Economic and Social Council.

The chambers, in committee or plenary, control government action through questions to executive members, followed by resolutions.

Motions of censure are permitted, though not constructive, and do not require an alternative candidate. Motions against individual ministers are also allowed, and a minister can be dismissed for rejecting their ministry's budget.

The government can dissolve the chambers early. However, the First Chamber cannot be dissolved before the provincial legislatures' terms end, while the Second Chamber can be dissolved independently.

Government-parliament relations involve meetings and contacts between ministers and parliamentary group leaders (fractions).

These fractions ensure voting discipline in committees and plenary sessions.

Discipline underpins the parliamentary majority supporting the government. However, coalition governments are common, and differences between parliamentary factions can trigger government crises.

The opposition's role is limited unless there are divisions within the governing majority. Its primary function is government control.

2.2 The Government

Until 1983, the king formally appointed ministers and headed the executive, though this depended on the parliamentary majority.

The monarchy's role is now minor, as ministers are accountable to parliament for the queen's actions, and she makes no decisions without prior consultation.

Nominally, the queen can appoint and dismiss ministers, declare states of siege and emergency, manage external relations, appoint military officers, and set civil servant salaries.

However, the government exercises these functions in practice, as ministers sign and are responsible for these decisions. Nevertheless, the queen retains indirect influence.

The queen plays a key role in government formation, appointing the "builder" and "informer." The builder's mission is to form a government pact, while the informer assesses the pact's viability.

Since the introduction of universal suffrage and proportional representation, Dutch governments are always coalitions. Negotiations between parliamentary blocs are led by the builder and informer.

The builder invites potential majority-forming political forces to negotiate, excluding incompatible combinations.

Once partners are chosen, parliamentary leaders negotiate a detailed government agreement, including a comprehensive program and the proportional distribution of ministerial portfolios and state secretary positions based on Second Chamber seats.

Appointed ministers must resign from parliament.

Finally, the queen appoints the ministers, who do not require a parliamentary investiture vote.

Despite the traditional separation of powers, the line between executive and legislature has blurred. The incompatibility between ministerial and parliamentary positions has diminished, as party leaders often prioritize ministerial roles. This has been mitigated by increased ministerial political weight and coordination meetings between parliamentary faction leaders, Second Chamber spokespersons, and their party's ministers.

The Dutch government is not a uniform body, with each ministry operating autonomously.

The Minister-President (Prime Minister) chairs the council. While their social leadership is growing, their role is less significant than in other European countries.

The Minister-President coordinates ministers, sets ministerial meeting agendas, casts tie-breaking votes, and requests (with justification) the queen to dissolve chambers. Notably, they do not appoint or dismiss ministers.

Ministries are autonomous, with varying internal structures and functional decentralization due to neo-corporatism.

Ministers head ministerial departments, each developing its own interest networks with relevant groups and acting independently.

There is no traditional civil service. Each ministry recruits its own staff, often from universities, who typically develop their careers within that ministry, with limited interdepartmental mobility due to specialization.

Each ministry has its own organizational culture, ranking, and structure.

2.3 The Judiciary and Other State Institutions

The judiciary is independent from the government and parliament. The highest court is the Supreme Court.

The queen appoints Supreme Court members from a list proposed by the States General. In practice, the shortlist comes from a list provided by the Supreme Court to the Second Chamber, and the government makes the appointment.

Judges serve for life or until age 70.

Below the Supreme Court are 19 regional courts and district courts.

The administrative court has a separate structure:

• A Central Court of Appeal for administrative matters
• Lower-level specialized courts for specific issues (fiscal, labor, etc.)

The government appoints judges for life, though removal is only possible for disciplinary reasons and by the judiciary itself.

The Netherlands has no constitutional court. The Council of State provides preliminary opinions on the constitutionality of draft laws and treaties submitted by the government.

The queen chairs the Council of State (without voting rights). Its 29 members are appointed by the government. It has advisory and consultative roles, as well as a judicial role in administrative disputes.

The General Chamber of Auditors examines state income and expenditure.

Territorial Organization

Since 1814, the Netherlands has been a unitary, centralized state due to the expansion of royal powers.

This territorial centralization persists, contrasting with administrative decentralization and neo-corporatist decentralization.

Currently, 12 provinces each have a directly elected parliament and provincial government. However, they have limited powers shared with other government levels.

Their limited role has led to discussions of abolishing provinces, whose power derives from the central government.

Municipalities have a constitutional right to autonomy and co-governance. Depending on population size, municipalities elect a council of 7-45 members, which elects two to six council members from among its directors.

The central government appoints mayors for six-year terms, considering political criteria (national majority proportions) and technical criteria (qualifications and experience). Mayors are party members and not necessarily connected to their municipality.

Provinces have a similar structure, with a Royal Commissioner instead of a mayor, a provincial council instead of a city council, and provincial deputies instead of councilors.

Co-governance primarily involves implementing programs and laws developed at other levels, and financial dependence on the central government reinforces territorial centralization.

3. The Political Culture

Pillarization (Verzuiling) is key to understanding Dutch political and social actors. The country's main institutions and societal segmentation arose within this context.

Pillars, or social groups, were isolated by religious or class characteristics, developing their own independent social institutions.

No pillar achieved a dominant majority, forcing their elites into alliances and pacts, creating a consensus-based political system.

During the 19th century, five pillars emerged, each with a network of organizations serving its members in isolation. Their elites negotiated within national political institutions.

However, not all pillars had all elements and isolated institutions. Since the 1970s, mergers and a reverse process of depillarization have blurred the lines.

The Catholic pillar was the most organized, with its own media, healthcare, educational network, universities, union (NKV), and political party (KVP).

The two Protestant pillars shared media, healthcare, schools, and universities, but shared the Catholic pillar's union and employer organization. They differed in churches and political parties.

The social pillar had its own party and media but used state schools, universities, and healthcare.

The liberal pillar, the least organized, had its own party and employer organization, used state services, and had members with lower levels of identification.

Depillarization has led to pillar mergers, impacting the party system and pressure groups. Societal secularization has reduced loyalty and identification with pillars.

This cultural shift has benefited the less organized and more flexible liberal pillar, while harming the more organized faith-based Catholic and Protestant pillars.

Today, pillarization manifests in three pillars, though divisions remain on denominational and non-denominational issues (like abortion) and between rich and poor (budgets, taxes, labor laws).

Alongside pillarization are ecological and right-left fractures, leading to new parties and organizations, though without the same network as the pillars. These fractures weaken the pillars.

4. Political Parties

Political parties emerged from fault lines:

• The first fault line was between the national "central culture" and the resilience of provincial and suburban populations, leading to a Catholic group opposing the dominant Brabant culture.
• The second, parallel 19th-century fault line contrasted national secular, rational, central culture with Calvinist privileges and dogmas.
• The third fault line, between landed and industrial groups, did not materialize in the Netherlands.
• The fourth fault line was between owners/employers and industrial workers.

The liberal movement, influenced by the French Revolution, arrived in 1848, advocating state reform despite opposition from the urban bourgeoisie and the House of Orange. It maintained prominence until the early 20th century, using census-based voting to achieve parliamentary majorities.

After the introduction of universal suffrage, its vote share dropped to around 10%. Following splits and mergers of liberal groups, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) was formed in 1948.

The VVD gained support in the 1960s and 1970s due to its liberal economic and political program.

Protestant groups emerged in reaction to liberal ideas and the French Revolution. In 1879, the Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) formed to unite religious groups against the dominant liberals.

However, this unification failed, leading to an ARP split in 1894 and the creation of the Christian Historical Union (CHU) in 1908, linked to the Netherlands Reformed Church hierarchy.

The Catholic pillar initially supported independent deputies who backed the Liberal majority in exchange for religious normalization. In 1926, it formed the Roman Catholic State Party, which became the Catholic People's Party (KVP) after World War II.

Societal secularization caused depillarization and declining support for the three confessional parties.

In 1980, these groups merged to form the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), focusing on economic and social protection and taking right-wing stances on issues like abortion and euthanasia.

Socialist ideology emerged in the late 19th century. However, the initially small industrial workforce and the religious priorities of workers and craftsmen led to greater participation in confessional pillars.

After initial failures of social democratic and Marxist groups, the Social Democratic Workers' Party (SDAP) abandoned Marxist ideals and adopted moderate positions, becoming the Labour Party (PvdA) after World War II.

The Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN) emerged from a SDAP split in 1909.

Numerous mergers and divisions occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. The Democrats 66 (D66), formed in reaction to pillarization, participated in 1990s coalition governments. While not anti-system, it aimed to reform the political system.

Finally, far-right parties like the Centre Democrats (CD) and the far-left Socialist Party (SP) have emerged, though with limited parliamentary representation.

5. Pressure Groups

Deconcentration, decentralization, and neo-corporatism characterize the Dutch political system. Pressure groups participate directly in decision-making, and the government benefits from this participation to gain support for public policy.

Trade unions and employer organizations are the main pressure groups, originating from societal pillarization. Catholic, Protestant, and socialist unions existed.

Depillarization led to the merger of socialist and Catholic unions into the Federation of Dutch Trade Unions (FNV), while the Protestant National Christian Trade Union (CNV) remains.

This process has also reduced union influence and led to the rise of numerous professional and specialized unions.

On the employer side, depillarization has caused mergers between former employer associations and the rise of small business and farmer associations.

Dutch neo-corporatism relies on an institutional framework bringing together social partners and state representatives, most prominently the Social and Economic Council (SER).

Organizations representing specific economic sectors also exist, with regulatory capacity within their sectors.

All organizations converge on the SER, composed of union representatives, employer representatives, and crown-appointed members (Central Bank Governor, executive representatives, and economic experts).

This neo-corporatism is linked to the Dutch political and social culture of agreement, consensus, and pact-based conflict resolution.

Each organization represents a societal sector, requiring agreements with other parties to achieve majority support for decisions.

Like pillarization, neo-corporatism has been affected by social change, with relationships becoming more conflict-oriented. However, the neo-corporatist structure remains more robust than pillarization due to its direct link to government organization and administration.

6. The Party System

The Dutch party system is multi-party, with three to five relevant parties according to Sartori's criterion of coalition or blackmail potential.

Currently, four parties are considered relevant: the PvdA, CDA, VVD, and D66. The GreenLeft could be considered a fifth following the 1998 election.

No party is dominant or able to achieve an absolute majority, leading to coalition governments and consensus-based politics. Compromise and the struggle for the center are key features.

On a left-right axis:

• CDA occupies the center
• VVD occupies the center-right
• Orthodox Calvinist parties and the CD are on the far-right
• D66 is left of the CDA
• PvdA is further left
• SP and GreenLeft are on the far-left

Economic issues dominate coalition formation, while religious-secular issues are often secondary.

However, voting behavior shifted significantly in 1994, with declining support for the CDA and PvdA (though the latter recovered in 1998).

This shift benefits the VVD, which has become the second-largest party, surpassing the CDA.

Despite this, the system remains moderately pluralistic and centripetal, with a leftward shift towards the PvdA and GreenLeft.

The decline of the Democrats signals the end of pillarization.

7. Electoral System and Elections

The Dutch electoral system is characterized by extreme proportionality in the Second Chamber and provincial and municipal council elections.

While electoral districts vary, the electoral system is the same for municipal and provincial elections.

Four key elements of the electoral system:

• Electoral formula: Directly proportional, with seats directly reflecting votes.
• District magnitude: Nationwide voting district. Party votes are counted nationally, with 19 formal districts effectively acting as one. Parties have the same top candidate in all 19 districts, while secondary candidates may vary. There is no geographical representation.
• Seat allocation: Votes directly translate to seats. An electoral quotient is calculated by dividing the total number of votes by the number of seats. Each party's votes are divided by the quotient to determine their initial seat allocation. Remaining seats are allocated using the D'Hondt method.
• Ballot structure: Either electronic voting or a single ballot listing all parties. Voters indicate their preferred candidate, though the vote primarily benefits the party due to closed lists.

The direct electoral formula, single district, proportional allocation of additional seats, and lack of a threshold make this system a prime example of direct proportionality.