The Nature of Knowledge and Human Evolution

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge

Descartes did not use the word itself as subjective-objective. What are the consequences of this? Scientists often view everything through the lens of objective investigation, focusing on goals and aspirations. Poets, on the other hand, embody wisdom through subjectivity.

Sentences involve an utterance and are formed by propositions. While words express concepts like fear, two sentences with different contents can convey an equally limited meaning.

A poet's expression is based on the enunciative sentence's content. It relies on the manner and content to express something limited. Conversely, we often desire more content when the expression itself is limited.

Types of Statements and Knowledge

Expressions (propositions) can refer to singular events, things, or cases, or they can express universal knowledge that applies to any case. For example, an infinite number of possible cases exist where the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. Science states and declares universal statements. Experiences can also lead to universal statements, which are based on experience a posteriori. Those based on initial principles are a priori.

Analytical vs. Synthetic Statements

• Analytical: These are statements where the predicate is contained within the definition of the subject. For example: A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles.
• Synthetic: These statements express something that is not inherently part of the subject's definition. For example: The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees.

Statements that are tautological or self-evident are often considered analytical, as their truth is contained within their definition. Singular statements are often based on retrospective experience.

A Priori vs. A Posteriori Knowledge

Universal statements can be classified as analytical a priori, synthetic a priori, or a posteriori.

• All mathematical laws are a priori statements. They express certainty and are not derived from experience.
• The results of testing phenomena or events in scientific experiments are derived subsequently (a posteriori).
• A priori knowledge is based on reason or definition, expressing certainty (e.g., mathematical laws).
• A universal statement based on experiential knowledge is considered probable (a posteriori).

Limits of Knowledge

The boundaries of knowledge question how far our understanding can extend. Knowledge cannot be considered to go beyond experience at a particular time; we are confined within this limit.

Descartes used methodical doubt to explore the limits of reason.

• The Empiricists believe knowledge is primarily a posteriori and probable.
• The Rationalists assert that a priori knowledge is completely true and certain.

Evolution and Human Development

Darwin's Impact on Human Understanding

Charles Darwin's theory profoundly influenced the scientific and psychological understanding of humans. All scientific inquiry developed after the Theory of Evolution is conditioned by its insights.

Biological Classification and Human Evolution

Living organisms are classified into kingdoms. For example, the Animal Kingdom includes various groups:

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata (includes vertebrates)
• Class: Mammalia
• Order: Primates
• Family: Hominidae (Hominids) and Pongidae (Apes)
• Genus: Homo, Australopithecus
• Species: Homo sapiens

Within the Hominid family, there have been two major genera: Homo and Australopithecus. Paleontologists and anthropologists study the human species within the Hominid family.

Shared Traits with Apes and the Emergence of Culture

What do humans share with apes? Biological questions include bipedalism. The emergence of culture is seen as a specific strategic adaptation for survival.

Culture: Everything that is the result of learning (e.g., breaking a stone to create a new tool). Culture is present to a minimum degree in some hominid species (e.g., chimpanzees), though its elements are often sporadic in non-human primates (Pongids).

Defining Hominization and Humanization

• Hominization: Fundamentally biological changes, genetically inherited, that led to the differentiation of hominids from other primates. Key changes include:
  1. Bipedalism
  2. Development of hands and feet (manipulative extremities)
  3. Brain development
  Additionally, changes in the larynx were crucial for the development of distinct speech.
• Humanization: A set of strictly cultural changes that led to the development of modern humans (Homo sapiens).

Key Evolutionary Milestones

The timeline of life on Earth and human evolution:

• Earth - Life: Approximately 3 billion years ago
• Mammals (e.g., mouse-like ancestors): Approximately 100 million years ago
• Extinction of Dinosaurs: Approximately 70 million years ago
• Primates: Approximately 30 million years ago
• Hominids: Approximately 5 to 6 million years ago
• Australopithecus afarensis: Approximately 3 million years ago
• Homo habilis: Approximately 2 million years ago
• Homo sapiens: Approximately 250,000 years ago