Nationalism and Nation-Building in 19th Century Europe

The formation of nation-states across much of Western Europe began with the creation of unitary states in the 17th and 18th centuries. Later, the Industrial Revolution spurred the need for unified national markets. This led to the elimination of internal customs, the standardization of weights and measures, and the establishment of commercial codes. The liberal revolutions further stimulated the development of the concept of a nation.

Liberal and Romantic Views of the Nation

Liberal thought, inheriting the legacy of the French Revolution, defined a nation as a group of people united by history, language, or culture, and—above all—by the desire to live together under common laws and institutions. Contrasting this, some late 18th-century thinkers, particularly in Germany, defined a nation as an eternal and immutable spiritual entity, expressing itself through language and culture, transcending individual desires.

Nationalism and State Formation

In some European countries (e.g., Portugal, Denmark), national borders aligned with political boundaries, and national affirmation occurred alongside liberal revolutions. In others (e.g., Spain, France, Great Britain), the new liberal states encompassed diverse nationalities, leading to conflicts and efforts to create a uniform national identity through symbols and institutions. In central and eastern Europe, the mismatch between political and national communities was particularly pronounced. Nationalist movements in these regions aimed for either independence or autonomy from external political powers.

Early Nationalist Movements

The Congress of Vienna (1815) established a European map with six major powers and over thirty smaller entities lacking cultural status, including the German and Italian regions. Inspired by the liberal revolutions' emphasis on the rights of peoples over the rights of monarchs, early nationalist revolts aimed to achieve independence and establish their own states. Before 1848, the most significant uprisings were those of Greece and Belgium. In the 1820s, a liberal independence insurrection arose in Greece against Ottoman rule. Belgium gained independence from the Netherlands after a series of civil wars.

The Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the Spring of Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a wave of popular demonstrations across Europe in the first half of the year. Characterized by their brevity and rapid spread, these revolutions had significant repercussions in France, Austria, Germany, Italy, and several Central European states.