Napoleonic Era: Directory, Empire, and Vienna Congress

The Directory (1795-1799)

Following the era of the Jacobins, a new constitution in 1795 established limited suffrage based on property ownership. The government was led by a five-member Directory, which held executive power, while legislative power was vested in two councils.

Radicals conspired against the government. The Conspiracy of the Equals, led by Babeuf, was a plot to overthrow the government and establish an egalitarian society.

Royalists also led revolts and counter-revolutionary activities with the aim of restoring the Bourbon dynasty.

In Europe, France won a series of victories. General Napoleon Bonaparte conquered most of Italy on behalf of the Directory between 1796 and 1799. However, Britain formed a Second Coalition that challenged French dominance and reconquered some territories previously gained by France.

The Consulate was created, but Napoleon was now the real ruler of France.

Europe Under Napoleon

As First Consul in 1799, a new constitution gave Napoleon the powers of a dictator. He later became Consul for Life.

Key Reforms and Policies:

• The Napoleonic Code: A legal code that prohibited certain privileges, allowed freedom of religion, and simplified the range of laws.
• The Concordat: An agreement with the Pope that maintained state control over the Church in France.

The Napoleonic Empire

He proclaimed himself Emperor of the French and sought to expand his empire through military campaigns. Notable engagements include:

• The Battle of Trafalgar (1805): A critical naval defeat for the Franco-Spanish fleet against the British, thwarting Napoleon's plans to invade Britain and securing British naval supremacy.
• The Battle of Austerlitz (1805): A decisive victory against the Austrian and Russian armies, often considered Napoleon's greatest tactical masterpiece.
• The Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (1806): Significant victories against the Prussians, leading to the occupation of Prussia.

The Continental Blockade was an attempt to stop British trade with continental Europe. The refusal of the Portuguese to adhere led Napoleon to invade Portugal and also Spain, which sparked the protracted Spanish War of Independence (Peninsular War) in 1808.

Napoleon suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Leipzig (1813), also known as the Battle of Nations. He also faced significant challenges and eventual defeat in the Peninsular War in Spain, which drained French resources.

Finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo (1815), Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

The Conservative Order

The post-Napoleonic era saw the rise of the Conservative Order, based on the following principles aimed at restoring stability and preventing future revolutions:

• Monarchy: It was believed that peace was only possible if a legitimate monarch headed each country, restoring traditional authority.
• Internationalism (Principle of Intervention): The great powers asserted the right to intervene in other countries if a legitimate monarchy was threatened by revolution.
• Congresses: Regular diplomatic meetings between the great powers were seen as a way to maintain peace, uphold the established order, and resolve international problems collaboratively.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The Congress of Vienna aimed to redraw the map of Europe and restore a balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars. Key outcomes included:

• France returned to the frontiers it had before the Revolution.
• Buffer states were created or reinforced around France as a protective barrier against future French expansion.
• Significant territorial gains were made by Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

The Holy Alliance, initiated by Tsar Alexander I of Russia and joined by Prussia and Austria, was formed to promote Christian principles in political affairs and to combat liberalism and revolution.