Napoleonic Era, Congress of Vienna and 19th-Century Unifications

Consulate (1799–1804)

1799–1804 — Consulate: New government made up of three members in which the First Consul was Napoleon. Napoleon implemented an authoritarian rule and aspired to end political instability. New political system: no separation of powers, no declaration of rights, and censorship of public opinion. Creation of state schools, organization of the commercial code, issuance of new banknotes, and territorial division.

Napoleonic Empire (1804–1815)

Napoleonic Empire 1804–1815: Began the conquest of Europe; Napoleon was crowned Emperor by the pope. Napoleon was eventually defeated due to the coalition of absolute monarchies, growing European liberalism, and widespread anti-French sentiment.

Consequences of Napoleonic Rule

The Napoleonic period produced major political, economic, and cultural consequences across Europe:

• Basis of democracy: Citizens acquired rights; they could vote, choose their representatives, and take part in selecting the government. Greater emphasis on equality and independent justice.
• Political life: Political clubs and assemblies emerged where people could participate in public debate.
• Economic liberalism: Development of capitalism among the bourgeoisie; freedom of trade and contracts was promoted. Trade unions began to form, internal customs barriers were ended, and a decimal system was implemented.
• Public education and culture: Education became more widely available and in many places compulsory for citizens. State schools were founded and public museums established.

Congress of Vienna (1814)

Congress of Vienna: In 1814 the Concert of Europe sought to restore former kings on their thrones and to stop the spread of liberal ideas. The Congress restored many monarchies and reshaped the European map.

Holy Alliance (1815)

Holy Alliance: Signed in 1815 by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, the alliance committed these powers to act together against revolutionary and liberal movements, aiming to preserve the conservative order.

Italian Unification (1859–1871)

Italian unification was achieved in several stages involving wars, popular votes, and military campaigns.

1. Creation of the Italian Kingdom (1859–1861)

1859 — Franco-Austrian War: Austria was defeated by France and Piedmont-Sardinia. 1859–1860: Several Italian states voted to join the new kingdom. 1861: Sicily rose against the Bourbon monarchy under the leadership of Garibaldi, contributing to the unification process.

2. Addition of Venetia (1866)

1866 — Austro-Prussian War: Italy allied with Prussia; Austria was defeated and as a consequence Italy obtained Venetia.

3. Incorporation of Rome (1870–1871)

1870–1871 — Franco-Prussian War: During the Franco-Prussian War, French troops withdrew from the Papal States. The Italian army entered and annexed the Papal States and Rome. 1871: Rome became the capital of Italy.

German Unification (1864–1871)

German unification was achieved through a sequence of wars and diplomatic moves led by Prussia.

1. Danish War (1862–1864)

Danish War 1862–1864: After the death of the Danish king, Austria and Prussia declared war on Denmark to control the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.

2. Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Austro-Prussian War 1866: Prussia defeated Austria; Prussia then organized the North German Confederation in 1867.

3. Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

Franco-Prussian War: Prussia defeated France, annexing territories and consolidating German states. 1871: Proclamation of the German Empire (Second Reich).