Napoleon's Reign: Rise, Reforms, Empire, and Downfall

Napoleon's Rise to Power

• 1799: Seized control of the Directory through a coup d'état, establishing a three-man Consulate with himself as First Consul.
• 1802: Proclaimed himself Consul for life.
• 1804: Crowned himself Emperor.
• Democratic Despotism: Held absolute power despite holding plebiscites.

Napoleon's Reforms

1. Class System/Society:
   • Nobles who fled France could return if they swore loyalty.
   • Peasants kept their lands.
   • New nobility established based on meritocracy.
2. Economy: Controlled prices, fostered industrial growth, and strengthened the nation's infrastructure.
3. Government: Strengthened the national government and established an efficient bureaucracy.
4. Laws: Instituted equality before the law, religious tolerance, and the end of feudalism. However, women lost many of their rights.
5. Religion: Signed the Concordat of 1801, placing the Church under governmental control while maintaining religious freedom.

Napoleon's Empire

From 1804 to 1812, Napoleon achieved significant military successes. He annexed parts of Germany and Italy, as well as Belgium and the Netherlands. He took territories from Prussia to form the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and placed puppet rulers on conquered thrones. Nationalism grew due to the successes in France and in the areas he conquered.

British Opposition to Napoleon

In 1805, France attempted to invade Great Britain. Admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the combined Spanish and French fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon retaliated with the Continental System, but it failed because Europeans desired and needed trade.

Decline of Napoleon's Empire

1. Europeans resented the Continental System.
2. Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal: The British aided local rulers who formed juntas to maintain power, refusing to cede authority to the former king.
3. War with Austria, although victorious for Napoleon, further strained his resources.

Napoleon's Invasion of Russia

Napoleon assembled the Grand Armée to invade Russia. The Russians abandoned Moscow and employed a scorched-earth policy during their retreat, starving the Grand Armée. The strategy was successful, and Napoleon was forced to withdraw in October. Only 20,000 soldiers survived.

Napoleon's Abdication

In 1813, Russia defeated Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Louis XVIII became King of France. During the peace conference in Vienna, Napoleon escaped from Elba, and the king fled.

The Hundred Days

On March 20, 1815, Napoleon marched into Paris. On June 18, 1815, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. He was subsequently exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.

The Restoration of Absolutism

The countries that defeated Napoleon convened at the Congress of Vienna, where they reshaped the European map. The main objectives were:

• Restoring absolutism through legitimism.
• Suppressing liberalism and nationalism.
• Establishing a balance of power.
• Implementing the right of intervention.
• Forming the Holy Alliance Treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the Quadruple Alliance, which included the aforementioned countries plus Britain.

Revolutions in 1830

Nationalism and liberalism gained popularity, leading to numerous insurrections with popular support. The revolutions began in France when Charles X, an absolute monarch, was replaced by Louis-Philippe of Orleans as a constitutional monarch. A revolution also erupted in Poland against the Russian Empire but was suppressed by Russia.

The Spring of Nations

The revolutions of 1848 ignited the unification of Italy and Germany, as well as the independence of countries under the rule of the Russian, Ottoman, and Austrian Empires. The Second Republic was proclaimed in Paris, accompanied by the spread of liberal ideas.