Napoleon Bonaparte: Rise, Reforms, and European Rule

Napoleonic Rule in France

The Consulate (1799-1804)

A new regime, the Consulate, was established following the coup d'état of 1799. Under its constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, held dictatorial power. This constitution was later revised:

• In 1802, Napoleon was made Consul for life.
• In 1804, he became Emperor, with the assent of the electorate.

Key Napoleonic Reforms

Several important reforms were implemented during Napoleon's rule:

• The central administration was reorganized for efficiency.
• The court system was simplified.
• Control over the school system was centralized under the state.
• French laws were standardized in the influential Napoleonic Code (Civil Code) and six other codes. These guaranteed rights and liberties won during the Revolution, including equality before the law and freedom of religion.

Napoleon's Wars and Conquests

Napoleon's reign was marked by extensive military campaigns:

• 1803: War resumed with Britain, primarily fought at sea.
• 1805: Russia and Austria joined Britain in a new coalition against France. Napoleon achieved a decisive victory against Austro-Russian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz.
• 1806:
  • Seized the Kingdom of Naples, making his brother Joseph Bonaparte king.
  • Converted the Dutch Republic into the Kingdom of Holland for his brother Louis.
  • Established the Confederation of the Rhine (a coalition of German states) with himself as Protector.
• Prussia and Russia allied and attacked the Confederation, but Napoleon decisively defeated both armies.
• Napoleon allied with Tsar Alexander I of Russia, reducing the size of Prussia.
• New states were added to the growing French Empire.
• Napoleon established the Continental System, a French-imposed blockade of Europe against British goods, aiming to cripple the British economy.
• 1807: French forces invaded and defeated Portugal.
• 1808: Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain, sparking the costly Peninsular War which significantly weakened French forces.
• 1809: Defeated the Austrians again.
• Annexed the Illyrian Provinces (modern-day Slovenia, Croatia, etc.).
• Abolished the Papal States and annexed them to his empire.
• 1810: Napoleon married Marie-Louise, daughter of the Austrian Emperor. The French Empire reached its widest territorial extent.

Napoleon's Influence Across Europe

In the territories and kingdoms created or controlled by Napoleon:

• The Napoleonic Code was often established as the basis of law.
• Feudalism and serfdom were abolished.
• Freedom of religion was generally established (though Spain was a notable exception).
• Each state typically received a constitution providing for male suffrage, a parliament, and a bill of rights.
• Control of schools passed to the state, and free public schools were encouraged, leading to increased education.
• Every state was encouraged to have an academy or institute to promote arts and sciences, often providing incomes to scientists.

Initially, many people were critical of Napoleon's rule, often not realizing the significance of these changes until after his downfall.

The Downfall of Napoleon

• 1812: The invasion of Russia ended in a disastrous retreat for Napoleon's Grand Army. This failure united most of Europe against him.
• 1814: Facing overwhelming opposition, Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba.
• 1815:
  • Napoleon escaped from Elba, returned to France (Paris), and briefly regained power (the Hundred Days).
  • He promulgated a new, more democratic constitution.
  • His campaign into Belgium ended with a final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815).
• Napoleon was exiled again, this time to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he remained until his death in 1821.