Napoleon Bonaparte's France and 19th-Century European Revolutions

The France of Napoleon Bonaparte

Initially, Napoleon shared power, but in 1802, he was declared sole consul for life. A new constitution established a strong executive, limited suffrage to the wealthy, and nullified the Bill of Rights. He also joined the royalists in their schemes with measures like the return of emigrants and the restoration of Catholic worship through a Concordat. Napoleon gradually accumulated power until, in 1804, he was crowned emperor. He addressed the creation of new institutions and reforms to consolidate the principles of 1791. He developed a Civil Code, a Commercial Code, and a Criminal Code that sanctioned equality before the law, property rights, individual freedom, conscience, and work, as well as free access to public office. He implemented administrative centralization through prefects and developed public education and linguistic uniformity.

Nation and National Movement

The formation of nation-states in much of Europe had begun in the 17th and 18th centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, the need arose to link national markets through the abolition of internal customs, standardization of weights and measures, and the adoption of commercial codes. The liberal revolution stimulated the development of the nation, a group of citizens bound by a history, a common language, and culture, but above all by a desire to live together.

In some countries, nations corresponded to the political boundaries of states, and national affirmation processes were performed concurrently with those of the liberal revolution. In others, the new liberal state incorporated various political and cultural nationalities and conducted a somewhat controversial process of standardization. In Central and Eastern Europe, there was a mismatch between political boundaries and national communities. Germans and Italians were divided among various political entities, and nationalists wanted to unite all territories into one state. The Austrian and Turkish empires encompassed various national communities. The goal of nationalist movements was independence or autonomy.

Social Democratic Experience: 1848

A new revolution in 1848 ended the system of the Restoration. The causes were the failure of the reforms of 1830 and the upset caused by the development of capitalism. In Eastern Europe, except for Russia, it involved the abolition of feudalism, while in Western Europe, it opened new doors to defending democratic ideals of popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.

The revolution began in Paris in February 1848 (during the reign of Louis-Philippe d'Orléans). The movement culminated in the assault on the Royal Palace and the flight of the king. A provisional government was formed with republicans, socialists, and radicals who pushed a program of political and social reform: universal male suffrage, abolition of slavery, abolition of the death penalty, and state intervention in economic life.

Elections were held with universal male suffrage, the outcome of which resulted in the formation of a new government of moderate Republicans who proceeded to dismantle the social reforms that had been initiated. A popular uprising in June 1848 became a confrontation between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The rebellion was crushed. The bourgeoisie coalesced around a new strong government that would ensure the functioning of a liberal regime against the people's aspirations. The rise to power of Napoleon III culminated with the proclamation of the Second Empire (1851).

The impact of the revolution in Paris was immediate and spread throughout Europe: the Austrian Empire became a constitutional monarchy, and serfdom was abolished. Only in Russia did the old stately structures remain. In 1848, the bourgeois revolution was completed, and the role of popular social forces began. This announced the development of liberalism towards democracy.