Napoleon Bonaparte: From Consulate to Empire and Exile (1799–1821)

The Consulate (1799–1804)

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte was named Consul, marking the beginning of the Consulate's rule. This was a period characterized by autocratic and authoritarian governance. Napoleon aspired to put an end to the political instability of the Revolution, consolidate certain revolutionary principles, and promote economic recovery through a government that represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.

Key Reforms and State Organization

• Political Control: The Constitution of 1800 severely limited liberties, and censorship was imposed to control public opinion.
• Administrative Structure: The state was organized into departments run by prefects who implemented government policies.
• Legal and Religious Changes:
  • A civil code for all citizens was drawn up (the Napoleonic Code).
  • An agreement with the Church, known as a Concordat, was signed.
• Economic and Educational Initiatives:
  • The public finance sector was reformed.
  • State schools (lycées) were created to educate an elite of civil servants.
  • A commercial code was established to stimulate the economy.
  • The Bank of France was created, and new banknotes were issued.

The Napoleonic Empire (1804–1811)

Napoleon began his conquest of Europe in 1803 and was crowned Emperor by the Pope in 1804. His large army and the use of new military tactics enabled him to defeat most European monarchies. After France's victory over Austria and Russia at Austerlitz (1805), the French troops seemed unstoppable.

The Zenith of Power

By 1811, the Napoleonic Empire had reached its zenith, extending from Germany to Spain. France controlled most of Europe, having defeated or controlled territories including:

• Russia
• Austria
• Naples
• The Kingdom of Holland
• Prussia
• The Duchy of Warsaw

In 1808, the French invaded Spain, and Joseph Bonaparte, the Emperor's brother, was installed as king.

Defeat and European Resistance

The Napoleonic military campaigns sparked two contrasting types of reaction in the countries occupied by the French:

1. Support from Liberals: The abolishment of absolute monarchies and the suppression of manorial rights had the support of European liberals.
2. Anti-French Sentiment: Strong opposition arose due to invasion by a foreign army, the indiscriminate violence by its soldiers, and the submission to French interests.

The Rise of Nationalism

The French armies occupied European nations by force, installing Napoleon's family members and army generals as their leaders. They collected taxes, conducted business, appropriated local wealth, and recruited soldiers, all while spreading liberal ideals. This combination provoked strong nationalist feelings and caused the emergence of resistance movements (coalitions) in conquered countries such as Spain, Poland, Germany, and Italy.

The Final Exile

In 1815, the imperial armies were finally defeated at Waterloo by Britain and Prussia. Following the defeat, Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile on the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.