Modern Social and Political Theories: Hobbes, Rousseau, Aristotle

Modern Social and Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan, discusses the social contract, where power is relinquished for societal order. He describes the state of initial human nature as a hypothetical situation of homo homini lupus (man is a wolf to man), where human nature is inherently destructive, leading to conflict and self-destruction. The welfare state, or life in society, necessitates suppressing destructive instincts and passions for security, achieved through acceptance of the law. The sovereign, possessing absolute power, represents this law, ensuring survival.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the noble savage, an innocent primitive without original sin, proposes innate human goodness. Social progress, however, corrupts this innocence, leading to unhappiness, decreased freedom, and social inequalities (rich and poor). Rousseau suggests a return to a society based on natural demands, achieved through a social pact.

Aristotle and Natural Sociability

Aristotle believed that societal participation is not a choice but a necessity, inherent to human nature. He viewed humans as naturally social beings (homo socius). The first social condition is the development of the individual within society. Social activity allows individuals to understand and control their environment, creating a shared culture through symbols. The individual, initially a political being, ultimately becomes a citizen. Living together provides autonomy from nature, and larger societies offer independence, security, and freedom. Aristotle considered the polis (city) a natural expression of human rational capacity, and viewed slavery and the division of labor as natural.

Attitudes Towards Cultural Differences

Given the diversity of societies, various attitudes emerge: heterophobia (hatred of difference), such as xenophobia and racism; ethnocentrism (“my culture is best”); and exclusion, as seen in Nazism. Conversely, heterophilia champions respect for cultural differences, promoting dialogue and peaceful relationships through cultural relativism and multiculturalism. Ethnocentric attitudes prioritize a particular group's cultural ideas as superior.

Human Nature and Cultural Change

Human nature encompasses the common elements forming a universal human substrate and basis for human rights. All cultures and societies are subject to change. While changes in animal societies are slow, human societies change rapidly, with progress consolidated across generations. These changes are not genetic but involve MEMEs (minimum units of cultural traits), which are transmitted culturally.

Acculturation and Cultural Integration

Acculturation involves the assimilation of customs and culture, potentially leading to the loss of original cultural identity. This occurs when a dominant group imposes its rules and values on others. Cultural integration emphasizes the strength of values, norms, and practices, regulating social relations. The extreme form is fundamentalism, which excludes those who do not conform.