Modern Philosophy: Reason, Descartes, and Enlightenment

The Dawn of Modern Thought

Modernity: Progress and Reason

Modernity is understood to begin in the Renaissance (16th and 17th centuries), with its initial phase often seen as culminating in the Enlightenment of the 18th century. It signifies a decline of the medieval Christian worldview. Modern philosophy developed a set of ideas and concepts incompatible with this traditional Christian perspective. The idea of modernity is fundamentally an idea of progress. In contrast, the Christian idea, often simplified in this context, emphasized humanity's place within a divine order. Enlightenment philosophers, for instance, viewed history as an endless progression towards achieving an ever more rational life. One of the key ideas of modern philosophy is reason. This emphasis on reason also characterizes the modern world. The criterion for truth must be sought in the evidence of reason. A significant feature of this era is a spirit of critical inquiry and dissatisfaction with established norms. In the history of philosophy, this spirit of adventure and this break with the past are clearly expressed in the philosophy of René Descartes (1596-1650), often called the father of modern philosophy.

René Descartes: Architect of Rationalism

René Descartes (1596-1650), known as the father of modern philosophy, sought rational principles that should guide, manage, and regulate all knowledge. These principles, he believed, must be derived from clear notions about the world and God, founded on reason. Consequently, Descartes is considered the founder of rationalism, articulating humanity's intellectual inquiries. He defined philosophy as the study of wisdom, encompassing guidance for life, the preservation of health, and the invention of all arts. This idea of philosophy encapsulates the ideals of modern individuals: an attachment to life, and a spirit of invention and transformation, reflecting an immanentist view of humanity.

Enlightenment Philosophers: Forging a New Era

Overall, 18th-century thinkers, often called the Enlightened, were not always systematic philosophers. Their concept of reason, so enthusiastically defended, was more a dynamic faculty than a static entity. It was an active, critical force intended to challenge tradition and lay the foundations for a new social and political order. Key figures in this movement include:

• Voltaire (1694-1778)
• Montesquieu (1689-1755)
• Diderot (1713-1784)
• D'Alembert (1717-1783)
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Rousseau: Champion of Feeling Over Reason

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) stands apart for significantly diverging from the prevailing mindset of many of his 18th-century colleagues. He posited that feeling was paramount, even above reason. This emphasis is why Rousseau is recognized as a key precursor or founder of Romanticism.

Immanuel Kant: Philosophy and Human Culture

Among the prominent 18th-century philosophers, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) holds a distinguished position. Kant is credited with moving beyond traditional metaphysics, which primarily focused on the study of God, the world, and the soul. For Kant, philosophy evolved into a critical reflection on human culture, encompassing areas such as:

• Science
• Art
• Morals
• Religion