Modern Age: Renaissance, Reformation, and Discoveries

Modern Age: From the Middle Ages to the Contemporary Age

The Modern Age is the historical period from the end of the Middle Ages until the Contemporary Age; from the discovery of America and the fall of Constantinople until the French Revolution. Sub-periods include:

• 16th Century: The Renaissance
• 17th Century: The Baroque
• 18th Century: Absolutism

Main Changes

• End of the Byzantine Empire: Constantinople was invaded by the Turks.
• Geographical Discoveries: In Africa, America, and Asia.
• Rivalry for Power: Significant competition among European powers.

Crisis of the Feudal System

Feudal kingdoms were substituted by the modern state and authoritarian monarchies. The feudal economy, which had been focused on the possession of land, gave way to the rising influence of the bourgeoisie. This social class, created from business and trade, gained more influence and importance. Medieval culture was replaced by Renaissance culture.

The Discoveries

• Political: After having reconquered the Iberian Peninsula, Christian kingdoms continued their expansion, seeking new materials.
• Economic: As the main trade routes had been interrupted by the Turks, new routes became necessary to reach Asia.
• Scientific: It was discovered that the Earth was round, although it was thought to be smaller than it really was.
• Technical: Navigation improved with new inventions: the compass to locate North, the astrolabe for guidance, more precise maps, and new cartography.
• Religious: Christian kingdoms continued fighting against their enemies and created alliances against them.

Portuguese Expeditions

In the 15th century, a Portuguese prince named Henry promoted these developments. There was a strong rivalry with Castile, which was resolved by signing the Treaty of Alcáçovas. Castile gained the right to conquer the Canary Islands, and Portugal gained the right to explore the African coast south of Cape Bojador. Portugal occupied the islands of Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde.

Castilian Expeditions

Christopher Columbus, believed to be born in Genoa, knew the Earth was round. He wanted to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean to reach India.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

In the 16th century, a great division occurred in the Western Catholic Church, breaking its unity. Some members of the Catholic Church expressed their disagreements about certain behaviors and attitudes of other members of the clergy.

Causes of the Reformation

• Some popes and high-ranking members of the clergy were not living according to Jesus' principles.
• Bishops didn't live in their cities.
• Nepotism: Clergy members gave ecclesiastical positions to members of their own families.
• Nicolaitism: Priests married like ordinary people.
• Simony: Ecclesiastical positions were sold.

Main Protestant Principles

• Anglicanism: It started in England in 1534. King Henry VIII founded the Anglican Church because the Pope did not let him divorce his wife, Catherine.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation

It was the Catholic Church's reaction against the influence of the Reformation. In some aspects, the Catholic Church introduced several changes. Two main elements were:

1. The Council of Trent: Convened by Pope Paul III to redefine Catholic doctrine. The Catholic doctrine would be disseminated through the Catechism.
2. The Society of Jesus: Founded by San Ignacio de Loyola, it supported the Counter-Reformation.

Humanism

Humanism was an intellectual movement in 15th-century Italy that produced a new way to understand and experience the world, in contrast with that of the Middle Ages. Humanists were inspired by classical antiquity. They defended the values of individualism, success, fame, power, and prestige.

Main Humanists

• Literature and Philosophy: They worked on and translated classical texts.
• Religion: They mixed their appreciation of classical tradition with their faith.
• Science: They studied nature using reason, observation, and experiment.

Other humanists, like Leonardo da Vinci, embodied these ideals. Humanist ideas spread all over Europe between the 15th and 16th centuries because of humanist journeys, during which exchanges took place, and new academies were founded.