Middle English Pronouns, Verbs, and Lexical Change

Middle English Pronouns, Verbs, and Lexical Change

2nd Person Forms and Address

2nd p. sg and pl in the Middle English period: Very different depending on whom you were addressing. The upper class used “ye” (plural of politeness), and lower-class speakers also used “ye” to address the upper class. The lower class among themselves used “thou” (singular). The upper class also used it to address the lower class. Objects: “thee” (sg), “you” (pl).

Pronouns and Relative Forms

• Relative pronouns and demonstratives: OE pe / demonstrative + pe.
• 12th century: that appears as a relative/interrogative marker.
• Introduction of wh-relatives and interrogative forms — frequency increases into Modern English.
• One replaces the OE indefinite pronoun man.

Demonstratives and Articles

Demonstratives and articles: Definite article from OE se, seo, paet → pe. The emergence of an indefinite article: OE numeral an 'one' → a /a/ (apocope; grammaticalization). Sum 'some' functions as an indefinite marker with plurals and generic nouns. By the 14th century these developments are visible.

Those from OE nom.pl. plural: -s.

Verbs: Present and Inflectional Variation

3rd person sg present indicative: Northern dialects: -es (e.g., telles). Southern dialects: -eth (e.g., telleth).

Prepositions and Conjunctions

• Greater use of prepositions.
• Influence of French and Latin in prepositional choice: of, at, in, by, to.
• Dramatic change in the use of of-phrases.
• French and Latin influence throughout.

Verb Phrase Developments

• Loss of mood and loss of aspect (weakening of 3e- y- / i-).
• Loss of many conjugational distinctions and the rise of auxiliaries.
• Development of modals (from OE preterit-present verbs).
• Development of the progressive aspect.

Syntax and Lexis

SVO pattern. Lexis shows a clear reflection of a triglossic scenario:

• Vocabulary losses in some domains.
• Different contact situations produced additions.
• Relexification: replacing words of one language with words from another while the original grammar remains largely intact.
• New lexical items and growth of the Middle English vocabulary.
• Importation of Latinate and Norse lexical items.

French and Latin Influence

French and Latin: More than 10,000 French words were adopted. Importation of French words started in IOE. French prefixes: con-, de-, dis-, ex-, pre-. French suffixes: -able, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ition, -ity, -ment (these became productive much later). Many words associated with religion and with the court — e.g., baron, servant, noble, feast — were borrowed. Borrowing occurred in practically every lexical field.

L code: native vocabulary; neutral, informal speech. H codes — French: slightly more formal. Latin: more learned register, often with longer words.

Hybrid Words

Hybrid words: one component is native, as in examples like perhaps, absolutely, and certainly.

Old Norse Influence

Old Norse: Scandinavian lexical influence starts in IOE. Most Old Norse borrowings do not surface until the Middle English period. Notes:

1. Most come through West Saxon.
2. Late West Saxon was relatively conservative.
3. Initial stages did not show full assimilation.

Only about 400 to 900 loanwords survive in standard Present-Day English (PDE). Mostly lexical borrowings. However, some core items show suppletive forms: are, they/them/their.

Suppletive Forms and Relexification

Suppletive forms occur where an unrelated root replaces an inherited one. Relexification examples:

• OE timan → ON take.
• OE sweostor → ON syster (sister).
• OE hie/him/hiera → ON they/them/their.

Semantic Effects

Semantic specification: ON sky vs. OE heofon.

Semantic calques: OE dream (joy) vs. ON draum (vision).