Mexico's 19th Century: Independence, Reform, and Nation-Building

Mexico's Path to Independence and Early Republic

In Mexico, the struggle for independence began with priests Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos y Pavón. It was ultimately completed by Agustín de Iturbide, who led a coalition of Creoles terrified of being governed by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812.

Economic Challenges of the New Nation

With the end of the Spanish monopoly, the volume of foreign trade grew significantly, from 148 ships in 1823 to 639 in 1826. However, exports did not keep pace with imports, creating a substantial deficit. This imbalance necessitated the export of precious metals, which in turn created severe problems for the new government. The only way to overcome this crisis was through foreign loans. Mexico's national debt escalated from 32 million pesos in 1824-1825 to 54 million pesos by 1843. To revive and modernize Mexican industry, the Banco de Avío was created, providing governmental assistance to nascent industries. Unfortunately, it had to close in 1843 due to a lack of funds.

Political Turmoil and the Establishment of the Republic

On September 27, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide attempted to attack Mexico City but was initially defeated by Generals Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. Iturbide's fall in 1823 cleared the way for the establishment of the republic. The liberal party was divided into two main factions:

• Moderados: Advocated for a slow, gradual pace of reform.
• Puros: Supported more radical, anticlerical reforms.

In 1824, a new constitution was established, attempting to reconcile both liberal and conservative interests. Vicente Guerrero was elected as the first president under this new constitution.

Key Liberal Achievements and Territorial Loss

The year 1833, under the rule of President Valentín Gómez Farías, marked some of the most important liberal achievements of the era. However, Mexico later suffered a significant territorial loss with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the United States. This treaty ceded almost half of Mexico's territory to the U.S., in exchange for 15 million dollars.

Conservative Resurgence and Liberal Revival

Around 1834, conservatives regained influence, focusing on reducing government departments and ensuring upper-class control in politics. The disasters suffered by Mexico under conservative rule created a strong public revulsion against their policies, leading to a revival of liberalism in 1846, particularly in the states of Oaxaca and Michoacán. This resurgence, known as La Reforma, saw liberal administrators come to power in Oaxaca. La Reforma sought to destroy feudal vestiges and implant capitalism. Its ideology attacked the latifundio (large landed estates) and championed the defense of labor and women’s rights.

The War of Reform (Three Years' War)

The Three Years' War, also known as the War of Reform, erupted in 1857, pitting conservatives against liberals. The Church actively entered the political struggle during this conflict. The war caused significant destruction, including damage to foreign property, leading to demands for compensation. Ultimately, the liberals emerged victorious.

Benito Juárez and His Reforms

In 1859, President Benito Juárez enacted significant clergy reform laws, establishing freedom of religion and firmly separating church and state. As president, he also dismissed two-thirds of the army and developed a public school system. His administration furthered the implementation of capitalism, a key aim of La Reforma.

The Porfiriato Era

Around 1876, Porfirio Díaz rose to power. His long regime, known as the Porfiriato, was characterized by an ideology of "Order and Progress." It brought significant internal improvements, fostered a disciplined labor force, and cultivated a favorable economic climate, though it also led to the rise of a new aristocracy and suppressed political dissent.