Medieval Spain: Christian Kingdoms' Rise and Fall (9th-15th Centuries)

The Formation of the Christian Kingdoms

The Pyrenean counties: Charlemagne, aiming to protect his empire from the Muslims, established a frontier zone known as the Marca Hispanica. This region was divided into counties, governed by counts who were answerable to the emperor. At the beginning of the 9th century, Navarrese and Aragonese counts from Jaca declared their independence. The Hispano-Visigoths established the County of Aragon around 817, and the Kingdom of Pamplona was also founded. Borrell II refused to renew the oath of allegiance to the Frankish king, leading to the effective independence of the Catalan counties.

Consolidation of the Kingdoms

Ferdinand I united the kingdoms of León and Castile. However, upon his death in 1065, they were once again divided. The kingdom was then called the Crown of Castile. Its territory was reduced with the independence of Portugal in 1128. In 1137, a new kingdom emerged, the Crown of Aragon, through the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronila.

Expansion to the South

The decline of the Caliphate of Córdoba into Taifa kingdoms in 1031 marked a turning point. The Christian kingdoms of the north launched attacks on the weakened Al-Andalus. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the Almoravids entered the peninsula, attempting to rebuild the Andalusian state. The Kingdom of Castile conquered Toledo in 1085, while Portugal reached Lisbon in 1147. The King of Aragon occupied Zaragoza in 1118, and the Count of Barcelona took Tortosa and Lleida. The military conquest of Al-Andalus necessitated the repopulation of the occupied lands. This led to an increase in the number of council members and the creation of new rural communities. The Christian kingdoms developed a rich agricultural and livestock economy. Breeders' associations, such as the Mesta, were formed to regulate transhumance. Craftsmanship flourished, particularly in the cities along the Way of Saint James. In the Crown of Aragon, trade spurred the use of currency.

The Way of Saint James

The Way of Saint James was a major religious and cultural event of the Middle Ages.

Expansion and Crisis of the Christian Realms (13th-15th Centuries)

The 13th century saw significant expansion following the disintegration of Almohad power after their defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. Only the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained as a Muslim stronghold. By the late 13th century, Muslims were a minority in the peninsula. Repopulation efforts involved the granting of lands to the military orders in Extremadura and La Mancha. In the Ebro Valley and Valencia, Muslims were allowed to stay and maintain their religion and customs (Mudéjars), while others converted to Christianity (Moriscos).

Aragonese Expansion in the Mediterranean

• Peter the Great conquered Sicily in 1282.
• James II took Sardinia between 1323 and 1325.
• The Duchies of Athens and Neopatria were acquired.
• Naples was conquered in 1442.

Government Institutions

There were three main institutions:

1. Monarchy: Feudal monarchy was less powerful in the Crown of Aragon than in Castile.
2. Cortes: Aragonese nobles imposed a pact that limited the monarchs' authority. The Cortes were comprised of nobility, clergy, and the bourgeoisie, which gained representation due to the rise of cities. Each kingdom within the Crown of Aragon had its own Cortes.
3. Municipalities: In Castile, the corregidor represented royal power. In Aragon, the Consell de Cent, representing the commercial bourgeoisie, led the government.

Economic Foundations

Sheep breeding was crucial in Castile, leading to the creation of the Honorable Council of the Mesta in 1273. Foreign trade flourished, particularly in wool and Basque iron. The Crown of Aragon had a strong agricultural and farming economy, along with significant foreign trade in Catalonia through the Mediterranean.

The Late Medieval Crisis (14th-15th Centuries)

The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by the Black Plague, social conflicts, and economic catastrophes. Poor harvests led to a decrease in the number of farmers, reduced production, and increased prices. This caused a decline in feudal incomes. Cities experienced a decline in trade, particularly in the Crown of Aragon. Social unrest ensued, with Catalan peasants demanding the annulment of the manorial system. In Galicia, the Irmandiños peasant revolt took place. In cities, Jewish quarters were attacked.

The Political Crisis

The stability of the kingdoms was affected by the economic and social crisis. In Castile, the nobles sought to strengthen their social dominance and impose their will on the monarchs.