Medieval Solutions to the Problem of Universals

The Problem of Universals

The controversy surrounding universals acquired significant importance during the Middle Ages. The relevance of this philosophical problem is evident when we consider that, for a long time, science was reduced to the universal and necessary. The objective value of science depended on the objective value of such concepts.

A universal, in general, is that which somehow relates to many particulars (such as genera and species). However, to truly know an object is not merely to know it as something universal, but as an individual—covered with a special character. This raises fundamental questions:

• To what extent can a universal concept respond to individual situations?
• Do universal things exist independently of particulars?

The Middle Ages proposed the following solutions:

1. Realism

Realism states that universals exist and are separate and independent from particular things. They do not depend on the existence of concrete individuals or the human mind that thinks them. The universal essence is present in all individuals; therefore, there is no essential difference between individuals, only differences by accident.

Key Representatives:

• St. Anselm of Canterbury
• William of Champeaux

2. Nominalism

Nominalism asserts that only individuals exist. There is nothing in nature that is universal; the universal has no objective existence, not even as a concept. There are only concrete things. While this theory advocates for the independence of individuals, it struggles to maintain the objectivity of universal concepts.

Key Leader:

• William of Ockham

3. Moderate Realism

Moderate Realism attempts to reconcile the previous two positions. It recognizes that the real substance is the individual; the individual is the true reality. The individual is not just a name but belongs to a species, and its individuality is achieved through individuation (that which makes this thing this and no other).

In this view, universals exist, but they are not separate from concrete things. Instead, they are inherent in the forms or essences of the things themselves (in re).

4. Conceptualism

Conceptualism holds that universals exist, but only within our minds (post rem). They are abstract concepts or mental entities that are obtained through abstraction from individual things or realities.

Key Advocate:

• Peter Abelard