Medieval Europe: Society, Culture & Change (11th-15th C.)

11th Century Developments

Technological Innovations

Key advancements included:

• Three-year crop rotation
• Iron-wheeled mouldboard plough
• New type of harness

Political Transformations

The Cortes or parliament emerged. These were assemblies representing not only the privileged classes but also the bourgeoisie, representing the broader population. The King often asked these assemblies for help (e.g., taxes, recruitment of troops).

Political Organisation in Cities

Initially subject to the authority of a feudal lord, the rising bourgeoisie did not approve of this situation and demanded greater autonomy. Kings or feudal lords granted fueros to the cities – documents specifying the rights of the lords or king and the inhabitants of the city. Administration was typically handled by a city council and magistrates.

Late Medieval Economy

Various crafts flourished, with craftworkers organized into guilds: associations of artisans practicing the same trade. A typical workshop consisted of:

• A master
• Several journeymen
• Apprentices

Weekly markets allowed peasants to sell their agricultural products. Trade fairs, held once or several times a year, were large markets lasting several weeks where valuable products were sold. Sea trade also developed significantly.

Late Medieval Society

• Nobility: Nobles increasingly settled in cities and became part of the royal court.
• Clergy: Mendicant religious orders like the Franciscans and Dominicans appeared, founding many monasteries.
• Peasantry: Many peasants moved to towns, becoming craftworkers or traders.
• Bourgeoisie:
  • High Bourgeoisie: Controlled the government of the cities.
  • Petite Bourgeoisie: People who worked for others (artisans, small traders).

Late Medieval Culture

Universities

Universities spread throughout Europe.

• They consisted of communities of teachers and students.
• Studies were divided into faculties: Law, Arts, Medicine, and Theology.
• Important universities included those in Paris, Salamanca, Oxford, and Bologna.

Intellectual and Technological Advances

The writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle were translated. Significant advances occurred in mathematics and optics. Medicine saw progress in understanding human anatomy. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press.

Gothic Art and Architecture

Architecture

Characterized by both religious buildings (cathedrals, churches) and secular buildings (town halls, palaces).

Key features included:

• Pointed arches and ribbed vaults
• Flying buttresses and pinnacles
• Rose windows and stained glass
• Architectural elements: Transept, gallery, main doorway (often with archivolts, tympanum, trumeau, and jambs), towers.

Sculpture

• Materials: Primarily wood and stone.
• Forms: Relief forms evolved towards more free-standing sculptures.
• Style: Gothic sculpture often had a didactic purpose.
• Characteristics: Figures became more expressive.
• Themes: Predominantly religious.

Painting

• Mediums: Wood panels and canvas; altarpieces were common.
• Techniques: Tempera and the development of oil painting.
• Style: Figures aimed for greater realism.
• Themes: Primarily religious, but scenes from daily life and portraits also emerged.

Transition to the Early Modern Age (14th-15th C.)

14th Century Crisis

The 14th century faced multiple crises:

• Economic Crisis: Terrible famine led to increased mortality.
• Epidemics: The Bubonic Plague (Black Death) devastated populations.
• Warfare: Numerous wars occurred (e.g., the Hundred Years' War).
• Social Conflicts: Peasant revolts and urban unrest were common.
• Religious Crisis: The Catholic Church experienced a grave crisis, including the Western Schism.

15th Century Recovery and Change

The 15th century marked a period of recovery and transition:

• Good harvests led to population increase.
• Kings began to assert their authority more strongly over nobles and the bourgeoisie.
• Humanism emerged as a powerful intellectual movement among scholars and leaders.
• Innovations in navigation paved the way for exploration.
• By the 15th century, medieval societies were giving way to the Early Modern Age.