Material vs. Formal Ethics, Social Origins, and Political Philosophy

Material and Formal Ethics

In the realm of media, material ethics considers actions as good or bad depending on the aim pursued. Immanuel Kant rejects this view because:

• Its imperatives are not universal.
• They are hypothetical, holding value only if we accept the good they seek as inherently good.
• They are heteronomous, meaning that humans determine what is good or bad.

In contrast, formal ethics views behaviors as inherently good or bad in themselves.

• It does not establish any ultimate good that humans should pursue.
• It merely dictates how we should act to behave morally, not the specific acts themselves.

Thus, moral principles are universal, necessary, and immutable.

Natural Law vs. Positivism

Natural Law is a legal tradition within the philosophy of law. As described by Italian jurist Norberto Bobbio, it is characterized by a dual legal system that recognizes both natural and positive law, with the former holding supremacy over the latter. Its foundation lies in an abstract "natural" order that is "superior" to the will of the people.

Positivism is a philosophical school of thought that asserts that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge. Such knowledge can only arise from the positive affirmation of theories through the scientific method. All philosophical and scientific activities should be conducted solely within the context of analyzing facts verified by experience.

The Origin of Society

Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes argued that society arises from an artificial agreement based on self-interest, seeking security due to fear of others. Starting from the definition of man and his characteristics, Hobbes explains the emergence of law and the various forms of government necessary for coexistence in society. The origin of the state is the covenant that all individuals make with one another, subordinating themselves to a ruler who seeks the good of all subjects and himself. This is how social organization is formed.

Rousseau

In The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau discusses the origin of society. He posits that society is the result of a voluntary contract among individuals, a grand social pact in which each person surrenders some of their freedom to the governing bodies of society. Rousseau thus justifies democracy while simultaneously upholding the authority of the government and laws. This agreement is voluntary and necessary for coexistence.

Rousseau speaks of a "general will," the common interest of the entire society to which each person must submit, making use of their freedom.

Man in a State of Nature

Hobbes

Hobbes asserts that in the "state of nature," humans live in a "war of all against all." "Man is a wolf to man." However, even in this state of nature, humans remain rational and tend to overcome disorder and insecurity. To achieve security and overcome the inherent danger of the state of nature, individuals relinquish their rights to a third party, giving rise to the State or Republic through this contract.

Rousseau

For Rousseau, humans are primal beings without malice, dominated by two basic feelings: self-love (the instinct for self-preservation) and pity. As the population grows and groups form, this union creates false needs. To fulfill these needs, humans invent agriculture and animal husbandry. However, the more humans acquire, the more they desire. Some individuals accumulate wealth, leading to fear for their lives and possessions. This fear prompts them to form a pact, which becomes the first legal code.

War of All Against All

The state of war is caused by aggression between individuals and does not necessarily need to be a formal state. The definition of the state of nature as a state of peace and happiness is a concept that John Locke uses to differentiate it from war.

Machiavelli's Political Thought

Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince and later Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy, the two major works that define his political thought. For Machiavelli, power is the ability to compel others to obey. In the exercise of power, he rejects moral and ethical norms for reasons of state and effectiveness. Machiavelli favored a Republican state, although he acknowledged that in difficult situations, a prince might be necessary to maintain order. The prince must retain all power, consider the people's desires, use measured violence, and keep the people content.

Francis Bacon's Vision of the Future Society

Francis Bacon proposed an intriguing idea: harmony among humans can be achieved by controlling nature, which provides the means for their survival. This seemingly simple concept has never been fully realized in human history. Mastery over nature has been limited and insufficient to achieve the golden dream of living on Earth without fear of starvation for any part of the population, however small. In The New Atlantis, Bacon presents his vision of a utopia. As a man of science, he was more concerned with solving technical problems than social ones. His gaze was directed in other directions, anticipating inventions that would take many years to be realized. The "House of Solomon," a society featured in this book whose mission is to guide the country's life, served as a model for the creation of the English Royal Society, which has played such a significant role in Great Britain.