Mastering English: Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phrasal Verbs

Relative Clauses

Defining vs. Non-Defining

• **Defining relative clauses** (no commas): Provide essential information to identify the noun.
• **Non-defining relative clauses** (commas): Add extra, non-essential information.

Types of Relative Clauses

• People: *who* and *that*
• Things: *which* and *that*
• Places: *where*
• Times: *when*
• Possession: *whose*

Formal vs. Informal Structure

• **Formal:** The preposition precedes the relative pronoun, and *whom* is used instead of *who*.
• **Informal:** The preposition follows the verb.

Connectors

• **Addition:** *also*, *in addition*, *as well as*, *besides*
• **Contrast:** *but*, *however*, *although*, *while*, *even though*
• **Others:** *in conclusion*, *it is important to*, *in my opinion*

Verb Tenses and Forms

• **Stative verbs** do not typically use the -ing form (e.g., *know*, *have*, *hate*, *like*).
• **Present Perfect Continuous:** *have/has* + *been* + *verb*-*ing*
• **Past Perfect Continuous:** *had* + *been* + *verb*-*ing*

Passive Voice

Subject - Verb - Direct Object --> Subject (Direct Object) - Verb (passive form) - Agent (Subject)

Modal Verbs

• *may*: possibility
• *might* (past of *may*): possibility
• *can*: ability, possibility
• *could* (conditional of *can*): possibility, ability
• *must* (present): obligation
• *had to* (past): obligation
• *will have to* (future): obligation
• *needn't* (lack of obligation): not necessary
• *mustn't* (prohibition): not allowed
• *should*: advice, recommendation

Suffixes

• **Nouns:** *-ment*, *-tion*, *-sion*, *-er*, *-or*, *-ship*, *-ness*, *-ence*, *-ance*
• **Adjectives:** *-ed*, *-ing*, *-ful*, *-less*, *-ous*, *-al*, *-able*, *-ive*, *-ant*, *-ent*

Phrasal Verbs

*Come* Phrasal Verbs

• *come round*: to visit
• *come through*: to survive
• *come apart*: to break into pieces
• *come down on*: to scold or criticize
• *come up with*: to propose or invent
• *come across*: to find by chance

*Stand* Phrasal Verbs

• *stand by*: to support
• *stand up to*: to resist
• *stand up*: to rise to one's feet
• *stand in for*: to substitute
• *stand for*: to represent or signify
• *stand out*: to be noticeable or prominent

Vocabulary

• *ban*: to prohibit
• *be about to*: to be on the verge of
• *charm*: attractiveness
• *command*: mastery
• *deserve*: to merit
• *devise*: to create or invent
• *enable*: to allow or permit
• *enthusiastic*: excited, passionate
• *expel*: to force out
• *hop*: to jump on one foot
• *insane*: crazy
• *judge*: to evaluate
• *overcome*: to defeat or conquer
• *proficient*: skilled, competent
• *proposal*: a suggestion or plan
• *prosper*: to thrive, to succeed
• *read aloud*: to read out loud
• *run counter to*: to oppose or contradict
• *self-consciousness*: shyness, timidity
• *start out*: to begin a career or journey
• *throughout*: all through, during the whole of
• *upcoming*: approaching, next
• *value*: worth, importance
• *yell*: to shout

Prefixes

• *under-* (underline)
• *over-* (overloaded)
• *non-* (non-negotiable)
• *co-* (co-worker)
• *re-* (rewrite)
• *inter-* (international)
• *anti-* (antihero)
• *bi-* (bilingual)
• *pre-* (prehistoric)
• *multi-* (multiracial)
• *un-* (unlikely)
• *im-* (impolite)
• *il-* (illegal)
• *in-* (insanity)
• *dis-* (disconnect)
• *mis-* (misuse, misunderstand)
• *en-* (enclose, enslave, enjoy)