Mastering English Grammar: Key Rules & Structures

Mastering Reported Speech in English

When transforming direct speech into reported (indirect) speech, several changes occur, primarily affecting verb tenses, pronouns, and time/place expressions. Here's a breakdown of common transformations:

Verb Tense Changes

• Present Simple: like → liked
• Present Continuous: am living → was living
• Past Simple: bought → had bought
• Past Continuous: was walking → had been walking
• Present Perfect: haven't seen → hadn't seen
• Past Perfect: had taken → had taken (no change)
• Future Simple (will): will → would
• Conditional (would): would → would (no change)
• Modal (can): can → could
• Modal (could): could → could (no change)
• Modal (shall): shall → would
• Modal (should): should → should (no change)
• Modal (may / might): may / might → might
• Modal (must / have to): must / have to → had to
• Modal (ought to): ought to → ought to (no change)

Time and Place Adverb Changes

• today → that day
• now → then
• yesterday → the day before
• days ago → days before
• last week → the week before
• next year → the following year
• tomorrow → the next day
• here → there
• this → that
• these → those
• ago → before
• tonight → that night

Understanding Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns connect a clause to a noun or pronoun, providing more information. They help avoid repetition and make sentences more concise.

• who: Refers to people and animals. (e.g., quien(es), la(s) cual(es))
• whom: Refers to people, used in more formal contexts, often after a preposition. (e.g., quien(es), la(s) cual(es))
• which: Refers to things, animals, or objects. (e.g., el cual, lo(s) cual(es), lo que)
• whose: Indicates possession for people or things. (e.g., de quien(es), de la(s) cual(es), cuya(os))
• that: Can refer to people or things. Used in restrictive clauses (no commas). (e.g., who y which)
• what: Refers to actions or situations, meaning "the thing(s) that." (e.g., lo que, lo cual)

Forming Wh-Questions

Wh-questions seek specific information. Their structure depends on whether the wh-word is the subject or object of the verb.

Object Questions (Wh-word is the object)

Structure: Wh-word + (auxiliary verb: am, is, was, were / modal verb / do, does, did, have) + Subject + Main Verb + Complement?

Example: What do you want? (Qué quieres?)

Subject Questions (Wh-word is the subject)

Structure: Wh-word + Main Verb + Complement?

Example: Who helped you?

Common Wh-Words and Their Meanings

• Who: Quién
• Whom: A quién
• Whose: De quién
• What: Qué
• Which: Cuál
• When: Cuándo
• Where: Dónde
• Why: Por qué
• How: Cómo
• How many / How much: Cuántos/as (countable / uncountable)
• What for: Para qué

Useful Question Phrases

• Is there / Are there: Hay (singular / plural)
• What do you want: Qué quieres
• What would you like: Qué te gustaría

The Passive Voice in English

The passive voice shifts the focus from the doer of the action to the action itself or its recipient. The direct object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive sentence.

Active to Passive Transformations (using "help" as an example)

• Present Simple: help → are helped
• Present Continuous: are helping → are being helped
• Past Simple: helped → were helped
• Future Simple: will help → will be helped
• Present Perfect: have helped → have been helped
• Modal (should): should help → should be helped
• Past Continuous: were helping → were being helped
• Past Perfect: had helped → had been helped
• Modal Perfect (must have): must have helped → must have been helped
• Infinitive (have to): have to help → have to be helped
• Future (be going to): are going to help → are going to be helped

Conditional Sentences (If Clauses)

Conditional sentences express a condition and its result. There are four main types:

Type 0: Universal Truths

Structure: If + Subject + Present Simple, ... Subject + Present Simple.

Use: To describe universal truths, scientific facts, or habits.

Type I: Real or Possible Situations

Structure: If + Subject + Present Simple, ... Subject + will + infinitive.

Use: To talk about real or very probable situations in the present or future.

Type II: Unlikely Future or Impossible Present

Structure: If + Subject + Past Simple, ... Subject + would + infinitive.

Use: To talk about hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future, or impossible present situations.

Type III: Past Unreal Situations

Structure: If + Subject + Past Perfect (had + past participle), ... Subject + would have + past participle.

Use: To talk about past situations that did not happen and their hypothetical consequences.

Essential English Connectors and Conjunctions

Connectors link ideas, sentences, or paragraphs, improving coherence and flow.

• Addition:
  • as well: también
  • as well as: así como
  • furthermore, in addition, moreover: además
• Contrast:
  • however: sin embargo
  • even though: aunque
• Cause and Effect:
  • therefore: por lo tanto
  • so: así que
  • because of: debido a
  • because: porque
• Purpose:
  • to: para
  • so that: para que
• Other useful adverbs:
  • almost: casi