Mastering English Grammar: Articles, Pronouns, Adjectives

1. Article Usage Rules

The article is a part of speech used before a noun, functioning as a noun determiner.

1.1. Names of Seasons

• Seasons are used without articles if they denote a general time of the year. Example: It was spring. I like spring.
• The definite article (the) is used when seasons are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. Example: It happened in the spring of 1930. The spring was cold and rainy.
• The indefinite article (a/an) is used when seasons are modified by a descriptive attribute. Example: It was a cold spring.
• When names of seasons are modified by the adjectives early or late, no articles are used. Example: It was early spring.

1.2. Parts of the Day

Parts of the day are used without articles:

1. If day and morning mean ‘light’, and night and evening mean ‘darkness’, or if they denote a certain part of the day. Example: Day broke and we started. The sun had gone and night had come. Day is meant for work, night for sleep. It was evening. The river was before them.
2. In the expressions by day, at night, from morning till night. Example: It is easier to work by day than at night.
3. When the nouns morning and evening are modified by the adjectives early and late, no articles are used because these adjectives show time, not description. Example: It was early morning when the train pulled into the little siding.

Usage with Articles:

• The definite article (the) is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. Example: He will never forget the day when he met her. The night was warm and beautifully still. We spent the night in the forest.
• The indefinite article (a/an) is used when the noun is modified by a descriptive attribute. Example: I spent a sleepless night.

1.3. Languages

• Languages are used without articles when they are not followed by the noun language. Example: She knows English.
• Note the peculiar use of the definite article in:
  1. It is a translation from the English (the French, etc.).
  2. What is the English (the French, etc.) for ‘сосна’?
• The definite article is used if the language name is modified by a particularizing attribute. Example: The English of America differs from the English of England.
• When the noun language is mentioned, the definite article is used. Example: The English language, the German language.

1.4. Meals

• Meals are generally used without articles. Example: When did you have dinner? Is dinner ready? Mother is cooking dinner. While they were at breakfast, the letters were brought in.
• The definite article (the) is used when the nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. Example: The dinner we had today was very substantial. The dinner was a success.
• The indefinite article (a/an) is used if the name of a meal is modified by a descriptive attribute. Example: After a hearty breakfast the four gentlemen sallied forth to walk to Gravesend.

2. Pronouns: Personal, Possessive, and Reflexive

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or a noun phrase (pro-noun). Semantically, pronouns fall into several subclasses: personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite, defining, and relative.

2.1. Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns indicate persons or non-persons based on their relation to the speaker. They have two cases:

• The Nominative Case: (I, we, you, they, he, she, it). Used as the subject. Example: He left us a message.
• The Objective Case: (me, us, you, them, him, her, it). Used as an object. Example: John didn’t find us in the shop.

2.2. Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns indicate possession. They have two forms in English:

• The Conjoint Form: (my, our, your, their, his, her, its). Used as an attribute to a noun. Example: My back is really painful today.
• The Absolute Form: (mine, ours, yours, theirs, his, hers, its). Is never followed by a noun. Used as the subject, object, or predicative in the sentence. Examples: My mother is a lawyer. Mine is a doctor (subject). I can’t find my pen. Can you lend me yours? (object). These textbooks are mine (predicative).

2.3. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns indicate identity between the person/non-person they denote and the subject of the sentence. They are often used to emphasize the subject.

The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, oneself. Example: Have you hurt yourself? She is never pleased with herself.

Verbs Used with Reflexive Pronouns:

• Always used reflexively: absent oneself, avail oneself, pride oneself.
• Often used reflexively: amuse, blame, cut, dry, enjoy, hurt, introduce. Example: I introduced myself to the groupmates. (Compare: He introduced his friend to his parents.)
• Never take a reflexive pronoun: afford, concentrate, relax, wonder, behave, feel, worry, sit down, dress. Example: She dressed quickly and went out of the house.

3. Indefinite Pronouns: Some, Any, No, and One

The basic meaning of the indefinite pronouns some/any/no is a certain amount or number of things or people.

3.1. Usage of 'Some'

Some is used:

• In affirmative sentences. Example: Frank has some designer clothes.
• In questions, if they are requests, offers, or suggestions. Example: Would you like some tea?
• In the meaning of ‘a certain’ or ‘some kind of’. Example: There must be some reason for her behavior.

3.2. Usage of 'Any'

Any is used:

• In interrogative and negative sentences. Example: Do you need any further information? They haven’t got any flights going cheap.
• In affirmative sentences in the meaning of ‘practically every’. Example: I can see you any time on Monday.
• With hardly, barely, scarcely. Example: I have hardly any spare time.
• With the preposition without. Example: He left without any warning.
• After if/whether. Example: I asked them if there were any other problems to solve.
• In expressions of doubt. Example: I don’t think there is any petrol in the tank.

3.3. Usage of 'One'

The indefinite pronoun one is used:

• To replace a noun so as to avoid repeating it. Example: I haven’t got a camera but I think I should buy one.
• In combination with the preposition of to denote one thing among many. Example: It is one of my favorite books.

3.4. Compound Indefinite Pronouns

The use of the compound indefinite pronouns (someone, something, anything, anywhere, no one, nowhere, etc.) is similar to that of some, any, and no from which they are formed. However, the syntactic function of the compound pronouns is typically object or subject.

4. Interrogative and Demonstrative Pronouns

4.1. Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun is used to facilitate asking questions. The five interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, and whose.

• What: Used to ask questions about people or objects (general information). Example: What do you want for dinner?
• Which: Used to ask questions about people or objects (choice from a limited set). Example: Which shirt should I wear?
• Who: Used to ask questions about people (subject). Example: Who is that?
• Whom: Used to ask questions about people (object). This is rarely seen in modern English. Example: Whom did you speak to?
• Whose: Used to ask questions about possession, referring to people or objects. Example: Whose cat is that?

4.2. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point to persons, non-persons, or their properties. They are this/these (near) and that/those (further away).

4.2.1. Distance and Time

• This/these describe things near us or time now/in the near future. Examples: Excuse me. Is this seat free? These are the tickets. Everyone seems to be in a hurry these days.
• That/those describe things further away or time in the past. Examples: That's an African elephant. Look at those mountains, they are huge. Do you remember that weekend at the seaside? There were no mobile phones in those days.

4.2.2. Syntactic Functions

Demonstratives can be used as attributes or as subjects in the sentence.

• As Attributes: Used before a noun and agree with it in number. Examples: This lesson is interesting. I hate these dark nights. That holiday in Italy was the best he had ever had. Those people we met on holidays were really nice.
• As Subjects: Refer to a thing or idea. Examples: This is a really nice cup of tea. Alan gave up his job to travel the world. – I think that's stupid.

Demonstratives can be used with a relative clause or the pronouns one/ones. Examples: I like all the pictures except this one. For those of you who are interested in learning more about Picasso, I've got a list of books.

4.2.3. Specific Contexts

• This/these are used:
  • To introduce people: Mum, these are my friends from college. This is Jan and this is his sister, Frieda.
  • When starting a phone call (identifying oneself): Is that Mr. Oliver? – No, this is Mr. Reynolds.
  • In informal speech to introduce a topic or start telling a story: This woman came up to me in the bank and asked if she could borrow…
• That/those are used when suggesting emotional distance, dislike, or disapproval. Examples: Are you still teaching that Martin Bates? I never liked the way he behaved in class. 'What? That old rag? There's nothing in it.'
• Intensification: In certain expressions, this or that is used instead of so to intensify an adjective. Examples: I've never known a winter this cold before. So, you think you are that clever, do you?

Note the use of demonstrative pronouns in spoken phrases: that is (to say), that's life/men/politics, etc., that's it, that's that, and (all) that. Examples: I loved him – that is, I thought I did. I don't think I was fairly treated, but then that's life, isn't it? That's it, then. There's nothing more we can do. There's no money left, so that's that. I knew he was interested in computers and all that.

5. Indefinite Pronouns: Either, Neither, None, Other

5.1. Either and Neither

The pronouns either and neither, in the meaning of 'each of the two', can replace a noun or an adjective.

• Either is used in affirmative sentences. Example: There's tea or coffee – you can have either.
• Neither is used to convey a negative idea. Example: It was a game in which neither team deserved to win.

The pronouns either and neither are combined with a singular verb. The phrase either of/neither of can be followed by either a singular or a plural verb. A singular verb is more frequent in formal situations, while a plural verb is usual in informal speech. Examples: Neither answer is right. Either type of iPod is fine by me.

Either … or and neither … nor are used to convey alternatives. Remember to use affirmative verbs with neither and neither … nor. Examples: She is the kind of person you either love or hate. He neither wrote nor phoned.

In sentences with the construction neither … nor, the verb is usually singular, though a plural verb can be used in an informal style. Example: Neither he nor his wife were at home (informal).

5.2. None

None is used to talk about more than two things, persons, or events. None is not used as an attribute, so it is never followed directly by a noun. However, none is commonly used with an of-phrase where the noun has the definite article. Example: Even an old car is better than none.

In the subject position, none is combined with a plural verb in informal speech and a singular verb in formal situations. None with uncountable nouns requires only a singular verb. Example: None of the bread was left in the house.

5.3. Another, (The) Other, (The) Others

• The other: Refers to the second of two people or things, which is not the one already mentioned. Example: He shifted awkwardly from one foot to the other.
• Other: Refers to additional people or things or to a different person or thing. It is always followed by a noun (singular or plural). It is often preceded by indefinite pronouns (some, any, no) or a cardinal numeral. Examples: There are other places I'd like to see. Can we meet some other time? Have you got any other questions? There is no other job I would rather do.
• Another: Derived from 'an other'. Used with countable nouns in the singular only. It means 'an additional one' or 'a different one'. Examples: I am going to have another cup of coffee. We finally moved to another department.
• Note the use of the phrase another + number + a plural noun meaning 'an additional amount or number'. Example: We'll have to wait another three weeks for the results.
• Others and the others: Used as nouns meaning 'other people or things'.
  • Others: Means 'several more apart from those already mentioned'. Example: I hope you will learn to show more respect for others.
  • The others: Means 'the rest of those already mentioned'.
• Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other and one another are used to talk about the relationship between two or more people. Examples: They enjoy each other's company. Liz and I have known one another for years.

6. Adjectives: Types and Degrees of Comparison

Adjectives are words expressing properties and characteristics of living beings, things, or substances. They perform two syntactical functions: attribute and predicative.

6.1. Semantic Classification

• Relative Adjectives: Describe properties relating to material, time, place, or aim (e.g., wooden, daily, local).
• Qualitative Adjectives: Describe properties that can vary according to the degree of their manifestation. These degrees are positive, comparative, and superlative.

6.2. Degrees of Comparison

6.2.1. The Positive Degree

Used to show equality in the degree of property between two things, expressed using the constructions as…as, not as…as, or not so…as. Examples: Exercise 6 is as easy as exercise 8. Silver is not so expensive as gold.

The comparative construction with as…as is widely used in idioms such as as good as gold, as busy as a bee, etc.

6.2.2. The Comparative Degree

Used to compare two things, showing that one possesses a higher or lower degree of property than the other. Formed by adding the suffix -er or using more/less before the basic form. The conjunction than is used to convey inequality. Examples: Nights are usually colder than days. The armchair is more comfortable than the chair.

6.2.3. The Superlative Degree

Serves to compare more than two things and denotes the highest degree of property within the given group. Formed with the suffix -est or the words most/least. The adjective in the superlative degree is always preceded by the definite article (the). Examples: Nick is the fastest player in the team. Physics is the most difficult subject for me.

6.3. Irregular Forms

A number of adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees irregularly:

• good – better – the best
• bad – worse – the worst
• many (much) – more – the most
• little – less – the least
• far – farther, further – the farthest (for distance), the furthest (for time)
• near – nearer – the nearest (for distance), the next (for time)
• late – later, latter – the latest (for order), the last (for time)
• old – older, elder – the oldest (for age), the eldest (for seniority, rather than age)

6.4. Regular Comparison Rules

7. Adjective Order in English Sentences

When describing a noun, multiple adjectives must follow a specific order to be grammatically correct. The standard order is:

1. Opinion: fast, ugly, smart, lazy, beautiful.
2. Size: small, huge, large, big, tall.
3. Age: young, old, elderly, youthful, used, teenage, second-hand.
4. Shape: square, rounded, circular, triangular, shapeless, oval.
5. Colour: yellow, red, jungle green, white, purple, black-haired.
6. Origin: American, Turkish, African, Asian, Scottish.
7. Material: wooden, metallic, plastic.

Examples:

• Jackline bought me a new brown American dress. (Age, Colour, Origin)
• She was a beautiful tall young black-haired Scottish woman. (Opinion, Size, Age, Colour, Origin)
• She was wearing an [Example missing in original text].

8. Present Tenses: Simple and Continuous

8.1. Present Simple (I do)

The Present Simple denotes:

1. A permanent action (a fact). Example: She speaks English. They live in France.
2. The general truth. Example: Vegetables grow well in this climate. The Earth rotates around its axis.
3. A repeated, customary action. Example: The Browns go to the seaside every summer. We write two tests each term.
4. A future action according to a timetable. Example: The train leaves at 10 tomorrow. The concert begins at 7 o'clock tomorrow.

Adverbials of Time: usually, often, always, every day/week/month, in the morning/afternoon/evening, at night, on Mondays, etc.

8.2. Present Continuous (I am doing)

The Present Continuous denotes:

1. An action going on at or around the present moment. Example: Why are you wearing that funny hat? The wind is blowing hard. Shut the window, please.
2. A future action when it is planned (definite arrangement). Example: I am leaving tonight. We are leaving tomorrow.
3. A continuous process (often with the adverbs always, constantly), sometimes implying annoyance. Example: The Earth is always moving. She is constantly laughing.
4. A temporary situation. Example: They are staying at the hotel until their house is ready.

Adverbials of Time: now, at the moment, at present, still, nowadays, today, tonight, etc.

8.3. Stative Verbs (Non-Continuous Forms)

The following groups of verbs do not express process and are generally not used in the Continuous form:

1. Verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear. (Note: Exceptions exist, e.g., to see the sights of; to see somebody home/off).
2. Verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to believe, to think (= have an opinion), to doubt, to feel (= have an opinion), to guess, to imagine, to mean, to realize, to recognize, to remember, to suppose, to understand.
3. Verbs denoting wish: to want, to wish.
4. Verbs denoting feeling: to love, to like, to dislike, to hate, to prefer.
5. Verbs denoting abstract relations: to be, to have, to contain, to depend, to belong, to concern, to consist of, to deserve, to fit, to include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to appear, to resemble, to seem. (Note: Exceptions exist, e.g., to have dinner/lunch/supper).
6. Verbs denoting physical properties of objects: to measure (= have length, etc.), to taste (= have a flavor), to smell (= give out a smell), to sound, to weigh (= have weight).
7. Verbs denoting affect or influence: to astonish, to impress, to please, to satisfy, to surprise.

9. Past Tenses: Simple and Continuous

9.1. Past Simple (I did)

The Past Simple may denote:

1. An action performed at a specific time in the past. Example: We entered the house in silence. He met us at the station.
2. A succession of past actions. Example: He shut the window, switched off the light, and went upstairs.
3. A repeated action in the past. Example: He made an entry in his diary every night.

Adverbials of Time: yesterday, last night/week/month/year/Monday, two days/weeks/months ago, then, in 1993/1825, etc. These adverbials go either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

9.2. Past Continuous (I was doing)

The Past Continuous denotes a temporary action taking place at a given moment or period in the past.

Adverbials of Time: at five o'clock yesterday, from five to/till six yesterday, for three days last week, etc.

Combined Usage: We often use the Past Simple and the Past Continuous together to say that something (Past Simple) happened in the middle of something else (Past Continuous action in progress). Examples: I saw Irene in the park. She was sitting on the bench and waiting for somebody. Jensa broke her leg when she was skiing in Switzerland.