Major Schools of Psychology and Their Core Theories

Structuralism: The First School of Psychology

Structuralism was the first systematic school of psychology. It was founded by Wilhelm Wundt and further developed by Edward B. Titchener.

• Focus: The structure of consciousness.
• Method: Introspection.
• Goal: To identify basic elements such as sensations, feelings, and images.

Structuralism treated the mind like a chemical compound. Its primary contribution was making psychology a separate scientific discipline. However, it faced criticism because introspection is subjective, it ignored the function of the mind, and it was not applicable to children or animals. Today, it remains the foundation of experimental psychology.

Functionalism and Mental Processes

Functionalism emerged as a reaction against structuralism. Its key figure was William James.

• Focus: The functions of mental processes.
• Core Question: What does the mind do?
• Emphasis: Adaptation and survival, heavily influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Functionalists studied real-life activities. Their contributions include the development of applied psychology and influencing education and behaviorism. Critics argued the school was too broad and lacked precise methods.

Watsonian Behaviourism and Observable Behavior

Founded by John B. Watson, this school posits that psychology is the study of observable behavior. Watson rejected consciousness and introspection, emphasizing S-R (Stimulus-Response) learning.

• Behavior is shaped by the environment.
• Support for determinism.
• Famous experiment: Little Albert.

While it made psychology more scientific, it was criticized for ignoring cognition and emotions.

Thorndike’s Trial and Error Learning

Edward Thorndike proposed learning through trial and error, famously demonstrated in his puzzle box experiment. He argued that learning is gradual.

The Laws of Learning

• Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened.
• Law of Exercise: Connections are strengthened with practice.
• Law of Readiness: Interference with goal-directed behavior causes frustration.

Thorndike's work emphasized that reinforcement strengthens learning and provided a major contribution to behaviorism. Critics, however, called it too mechanical and noted that it ignores insight.

Gestalt Psychology: The Whole and Perception

Gestalt psychology focuses on the principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Key figures include Wolfgang Köhler and Max Wertheimer.

• Insight Learning: Learning is sudden rather than gradual.
• Opposition: They opposed trial-and-error learning.
• Emphasis: Perception and organization.

Famous for chimpanzee experiments, this school contributed to the cognitive approach, though it was criticized for its limited scope.

Freud and the Power of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud emphasized the unconscious mind. He proposed a complex structure of the mind and personality.

Structure of the Mind

• Conscious
• Preconscious
• Unconscious

Personality Components

• Id: Driven by the pleasure principle.
• Ego: Driven by the reality principle.
• Superego: Driven by the morality principle.

Freud introduced defense mechanisms and argued that childhood experiences shape adulthood. His contribution to depth psychology is immense, though critics label it unscientific and overemphasizing sexuality.

Neo-Behaviourism and Edward Tolman

Edward Tolman introduced internal variables into behaviorism, proposing the S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) model.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments.
• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.

This school served as a bridge between behaviorism and cognition, contributing significantly to the cognitive revolution.

Humanistic Psychology and Self-Actualization

Humanistic psychology focuses on free will and personal growth. Key figures include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

• Self-actualization: Reaching one's full potential.
• Positive View: A focus on human strengths and self-concept.

By rejecting determinism, it made major contributions to counseling, though it is often criticized for being too subjective.

Existential Psychology and Meaning

Existential psychology focuses on meaning and existence. A key thinker in this field is Viktor Frankl.

• Logotherapy: Therapy centered on finding meaning.
• Responsibility: Emphasis on individual choice and responsibility.
• Anxiety: Viewed as a normal part of the human condition.

This school opposed determinism and contributed meaning-centered therapy to the field.

Indian Psychology and Self-Realization

Rooted in ancient Indian philosophy, this approach focuses on self-realization and the reduction of suffering.

• Core Concepts: Atman (the self) and Moksha (liberation).
• Perspective: A holistic view of the mind.

The primary difference from Western psychology lies in the goal: liberation versus control.