The Lutheran Reformation: Challenges to Catholic Authority in the Early Modern Age
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At the beginning of the Early Modern Age, the authority of the Catholic Church was being challenged. People believed that the Catholic Church was failing to adapt to the times.
Humanism emphasized the value of human beings and promoted individual interpretation of the Bible. With the development of authoritarian monarchies, monarchs had more control over the Church, weakening the authority of the pope.
In addition, the selling and buying of indulgences was introduced. This meant that sins could be pardoned in exchange for money given to the Church. This practice was criticized by priests and humanists. There were many other harmful practices at the heart of the Church, so some people called for reforms:
Living Humbly | Correcting Moral Standards | Preventing Corruption |
The high clergy was very wealthy, and many believed that this was not consistent with the Christian doctrine of poverty. | Priests sometimes did not honor their religious vows (e.g., living with women, gambling, drinking, etc.) and they were not able to give proper spiritual guidance to their parishioners. | Clergymen engaged in corrupt practices, such as simony (buying and selling church offices and roles) and nepotism (illegally giving church roles to family members). |
Despite many people calling for reform, the Church was resistant to change. Important figures, such as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Cardinal Cisneros, called for changes so that the Church could become more modern. However, others questioned the pope and the Church's official doctrine.
The Lutheran Reformation
The first religious reformation of the 16th century was started by a German friar called Martin Luther. He opposed Pope Leo X's proposal to grant indulgences in exchange for money to build St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.
In 1517, Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses criticizing indulgences. He posted the theses on the door of a church in Wittenberg so that they could be discussed. Thanks to the printing press, they were circulated widely.
Lutheran Doctrine | Catholic Doctrine |
Salvation through faith. To save your soul, you only needed to have very strong faith, so the Church's involvement was not required. | To achieve salvation, you must have faith, but also follow all precepts (commandments, sacraments, etc.) and do good works (pilgrimages, paying for indulgences, etc.) |
Free interpretation of the Bible. Anyone could interpret the Bible's message, so the Church's interpretation of it was not the only valid one. | The Church's interpretation of the Bible was the only valid interpretation. The Church's official Latin version was known as the Vulgate Bible. |
Reformation of the Sacraments. Lutheran doctrine included only two sacraments: Baptism and the Eucharist. | Catholicism had seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Matrimony and Holy Orders. |
Universal Priesthood. Lutherans rejected the hierarchy of the Catholic Church and the authority of the pope. Protestant pastors replaced priests, but they did not have to be celibate. | The Catholic Church had a well-defined hierarchical structure separating the high and low clergy, with many different ranks whose members had to be celibate. |
Religious orders were prohibited, as was the worship of images of the Virgin Mary and saints. | Religious and military orders, and worshipping the Virgin Mary and saints were very important aspects of Catholicism. |
The pope asked Luther to retract his theses, but he refused and was excommunicated (expelled from the Christian community). He developed his own doctrine based on individual Christianity.
Lutheran ideas spread throughout the Holy Roman Empire, so Emperor Charles V intervened. He first tried to mediate, but Lutheranism was finally condemned in two imperial assemblies: the Diet of Worms and the Diet of Speyer. At this last assembly, six reformist princes and 14 cities protested Luther's condemnation. They became known as Protestants.