Literary Movements and Spanish History: From '98 to Surrealism

Surrealism in America: Key Generations

The development of Surrealism in America can be categorized into distinct generations:

• Generation Surrealism (1927): Influenced by the precursor of psychoanalysis, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud.
• Generation Neorealist (1942): Also known as New Realism, drawing inspiration from nineteenth-century realism. Their model is Marxism, exemplified by Carlos Droguett (e.g., The Murdered Worker Insurance).
• Generation Unrealistic (1957): Marked the consolidation of Surrealism, reinforcing the characteristics of the first generation.
• Generation Novísima (1972): A primary example of this generation is Mario Vargas Llosa.

Spanish Monarchy: Habsburgs and Bourbons

Key Reigns and Historical Periods

• Charles V (Carlos V): The Reformation Era.
• Philip II (Felipe II): The Counter-Reformation.
• Philip III and Philip IV: The Era of the Validos (Royal Favorites).
• Charles II (Carlos II): End of the Habsburg Dynasty.
• Philip V of Anjou: Grandson of Louis XIV, the Sun King, initiating the Bourbon Dynasty.

Prominent Authors and Literary Works

Spanish Literature

• Miguel de Unamuno: Niebla (Mist), Abel Sánchez
• Pío Baroja: The Search (La Busca)
• Ramón del Valle-Inclán: Sonatas
• Antonio Machado: Songs
• José Ortega y Gasset: The Revolt of the Masses
• Rubén Darío: Azul... (Blue)
• Federico García Lorca: Blood Wedding, Yerma

Latin American Boom Authors

• Gabriel García Márquez: One Hundred Years of Solitude
• Carlos Fuentes: The Death of Artemio Cruz
• Alejo Carpentier: The Age of Enlightenment
• José Donoso: Coronation
• Julio Cortázar: Rayuela (Hopscotch)
• Ernesto Sábato: The Tunnel (El Túnel)
• Jenaro Prieto: The Partner (El Socio)

The Generation of '98

The main feature of the Generation of '98 is pessimism, stemming from the decline of Spain.

Causes of Pessimism

1. Historical Context: The Habsburg Dynasty Decline

The decline of the Habsburg dynasty coincided with the quality of its rulers. The text lists the succession: Charles V, Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II.

• Charles V: Spain held its largest empire; the Lutheran Reformation occurred; the discovery of America (1492).
• Philip II: The empire expanded further, annexing Portugal, Brazil, and Portuguese colonies. The Counter-Reformation occurred, led by the Jesuits and the Society of Jesus, founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola.
• Philip III and Philip IV: Spain suffered from misgovernance, relying on validos (trustworthy men who replaced the kings).
• Charles II: The reign that ended the Habsburg dynasty. Philip V of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV (the Sun King), assumed the throne, initiating the Bourbon dynasty.

2. Cultural Context: End of the Golden Age

The classic Renaissance ideals faded. The death of Calderón de la Barca (1681) marked the literal end of the Spanish Golden Age.

Other defining features of the Generation of '98 include the defense of the Castilian landscape and the Castilian language.

Modernism (Spanish Literary Movement)

Modernism was established in 1899 when the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío published his influential book of poems, Azul... (Blue). Darío's models were French authors, including Voltaire, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, and Mallarmé.

Its main characteristics are symbolism and exoticism.

The Generation of '27

This movement emerged in 1927 when a group of intellectuals commemorated the 300th anniversary of the death of Luis de Góngora. Its main feature is universalism and versolibrismo (freedom in the number of syllables in the verses).

Its leader was Federico García Lorca. Other key exponents include:

• Gerardo Diego
• Rafael Alberti
• Vicente Aleixandre
• Miguel Hernández
• Antonio Machado (who also belonged to Modernism)