Linguistic Signs, Literary Terms, and Medieval Spanish Poetics

Properties of Linguistic Signs

Linguistic signs possess several key properties:

• Arbitrariness: The relationship between the signifier (the form of the sign) and the signified (the concept it represents) is conventional, not natural.
• Discontinuity: Linguistic signs are distinct units, separate from one another.
• Linearity: In spoken language, sounds are produced sequentially, one after another, forming a chain in time as they reach the receiver.
• Immutability: From an individual speaker's perspective at a given time, the link between signifier and signified is fixed and cannot be easily changed by the individual. (Note: Language itself is mutable and changes over time within the community).

The Linguistic Sign and Its Components

A sign consists of distinct parts, illustrated here using a traffic signal example:

• Signifier: The physical form of the sign perceived by the senses (e.g., the red light of a traffic signal).
• Signified: The concept or idea the signifier represents (e.g., the command "stop" or the concept of danger requiring a halt).
• Referent: The actual object, reality, or situation to which the sign refers (e.g., the physical intersection and the legal requirement to halt vehicle movement when the light is red).

Key Linguistic Concepts

• Homonymy: The relationship between two or more words that have the same signifier (identical sound or spelling) but different meanings. This includes:
  • Homophones: Same sound, different spelling and meaning (e.g., 'to', 'too', 'two').
  • Homographs: Same spelling, different meaning, and possibly different pronunciation (e.g., 'lead' - the metal, 'lead' - to guide).
• Denotation: The literal, primary, or dictionary meaning of a word, independent of cultural or emotional associations.
• Connotation: The emotional, cultural, or secondary associations suggested by a word beyond its denotative meaning.
• Diglossia: A situation where a speech community uses two distinct languages or varieties of a language, with one considered 'high' (formal, prestigious) and the other 'low' (informal, vernacular) for different social contexts. In Spain, recognized languages include Castilian (Spanish), Catalan, Galician, and Valencian, each with its own status and usage domains within a complex linguistic landscape.

Literary Devices and Early Spanish Literature

Common Literary Devices

• Anaphora: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
• Polysyndeton: The deliberate repetition of conjunctions (e.g., 'and', 'or', 'but'; Spanish 'y', 'o', 'ni') in close succession for rhetorical effect.
• Apostrophe: Addressing an absent person, an abstract idea, or a personified object, often marked by exclamation.
• Hyperbole: Intentional exaggeration for emphasis or rhetorical effect, not meant to be taken literally.
• Simile: An explicit comparison between two different things using connecting words such as 'like' or 'as'.

Lyric Poetry

Lyric poetry primarily expresses personal emotions and feelings. Historically, it was often composed to be sung, accompanied by music, and performed by minstrels (juglares). A prominent theme, particularly originating in France and influencing Iberian traditions, was courtly love, frequently depicting unrequited love that caused the lover intense suffering.

Early Iberian Lyric Traditions

• Mozarabic Lyric (Jarchas): Short verses written in Mozarabic (a Romance vernacular spoken in Al-Andalus), often appearing as the final refrain of longer Arabic or Hebrew poems called muwashshahs. They frequently express female voices lamenting love.
• Galician-Portuguese Lyric (Cantigas): A rich body of songs from the medieval period in Galicia and Portugal, categorized into main types:
  • Cantigas de amigo: Songs from a female perspective about her absent lover (amigo).
  • Cantigas de amor: Songs from a male perspective expressing courtly love according to established conventions.
  • Cantigas de escárnio e maldizer: Songs of scorn and satire, criticizing individuals or societal customs, sometimes subtly (escárnio) and sometimes directly (maldizer).

Epic Poetry (Épica)

Epic poetry consists of long narrative poems recounting heroic deeds and significant events, often central to a nation's or culture's identity. These stories, or epics (cantares de gesta in Spanish), chronicled the exploits of heroes and were traditionally recited or sung from memory by minstrels (juglares) who traveled between towns, performing to entertain audiences.

Castilian Epic (Épica Castellana)

Notable examples of early Castilian epic poetry include:

• Cantar de Roncesvalles (surviving only as a fragment)
• Mocedades de Rodrigo (focusing on the youth of El Cid)
• Cantar de Mio Cid (Song of My Cid)

Cantar de Mio Cid

This masterpiece of Spanish medieval literature recounts the historical and legendary exploits of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as El Cid. It details how King Alfonso VI, influenced by envious courtiers, stripped El Cid of his property and banished him from Castile. Key themes explored in the poem include:

• Loyalty to the king (even when unjustly treated)
• The pursuit and restoration of personal and familial honor
• Faith in God and divine providence
• The challenges of warfare and frontier life

Mester de Clerecía

Meaning "Ministry of Clerics," this was a genre of learned poetry composed primarily by educated clerics during the 13th and 14th centuries. It contrasts with the more popular, orally-focused Mester de Juglaría ("Ministry of Minstrels"). Key characteristics include:

• Emphasis on written composition and learned sources.
• Use of a specific, regular stanza form: the cuaderna vía (four-line stanzas of typically 14-syllable verses with a single AAAA rhyme).
• Often didactic, religious, or historical themes drawn from Latin texts or scholarly knowledge.
• Intended for recitation or reading, aiming to educate and edify the audience.

Major works associated with the Mester de Clerecía include:

• Libro de Alexandre (Life of Alexander the Great)
• Libro de Apolonio (Story of Apollonius of Tyre)
• Works by Gonzalo de Berceo, such as Milagros de Nuestra Señora
• Poema de Fernán González (Life of Count Fernán González)